teristics of the scholastic philosophy. As early as the second century of the present era, Christianity came in contact with the philosophy of the age, and especially with New Platonism. It was not, however, till the eleventh century, that what may be called Christian philosophy sprung up, which, under its varied phases, is collectively styled scholasticism. The origin of this term is to be found in the Scholæ, or schools, which were founded by Charlemagne for philosophical studies; in which, however, scarcely any in those days had either leisure or inclination to engage, except the clergy. Hence the main characteristic of this period was constant endeavor to explain the doctrines of the church philosophically, and to work them up into the form of scientific systems. Anselm's declaration, "credo ut intelligam," was adopted as the guiding principle. The works of the scholastic writers exhibit an immense amount of sub tlety and acuteness, industry and toil; but, on the other hand, a mass of barren definitions and fruitless distinctions, "grave trifling, and solemn folly;" hence, the absence of really valuable results. The final aim of scholastic philosophy was 10 a scientific development of the tenets of the Roman church. It assumed as its basis the truth of those tenets, and employed as its instrument the Aristotelian logic. The deep and extensive influence of Aristotle's writings at this period is thus graphically described by Dr. Hoppus :-"This logic was the engine by which, for ages, the minds of men were bewitched in a manner that was altogether extraordinary. clesiastical authority. As the first of these, we may place the revival of learning in the fifteenth century. During the scholastic age, the study of the ancient classical authors had declined: even the Platonic and Aristotelian systems were known almost exclusively from translations and secondary sources. Italy first awoke to a juster appreciation of the beauties of the antique. The arrival of Glosses, para-Greek fugitives from Constantinople gave a phrases, summaries, arguments, and disser- great impulse to the study of ancient authors tations on his works were composed without in that land. Greek and Latin works were end. Many of the inhabitants of read in the original languages, and the art of the west learned Arabic, in order to read a printing multiplied copies. Learned men translation of them in that language. The assembled at the court of the Medici at Latin tongue was made another medium of Florence. Bessarion and Marsilius Ficinus their circulation, and they were read in most distinguished themselves as expositors of the parts of the known world. . . Aris ancient, and especially of the Platonic philototle's works were the great text-book of sophy. Classical refinement protested against knowledge, and his logic was the only wea- the dry, inelegant, uncritical mode in which pon of truth. Christians, Jews, the sciences had hitherto been handled. and Mahometans united in professing assent "The mere substitution of the Academic for to the great law-giver of human opinions; the Peripatetic philosophy would indeed not Europe alone, but also Africa and Asia have done little good. But any thing was acknowledged his dominion; and while his better than the old habit of unreasoning serGreek originals were studied at Paris, trans-vility. It was something to have a choice lations were read in Persia and at Samarcand. of tyrants. A spark of freedom,' as Gibbon The rage for disputation, which now began has justly remarked, was produced by this to prevail in consequence of the spread of collision of adverse servitude.'"* this philosophy, induced the council of La- The second and main cause was the Refteran, under Pope Innocent III., to proclaim ormation. The contest against the spirit of a prohibition of the use of the physics and scholasticism-the advocacy of classic culture metaphysics of Aristotle; but awful as were the struggle after national independencethen the thunders of the Vatican, they were the efforts of society to liberate itself from not mighty enough to dethrone him from that the Roman hierarchy-the desire of explordespotism over men's minds which, by longing the facts and laws of nature-above all, custom, had now rendered itself almost omnipotent." At length, "in some of the universities of Europe, statutes were framed, which required the professors to promise on oath, that in their public lectures on philosophy, they would follow no other guide." The most important point of philosophical discussion during the scholastic age, and one which exhibits itself through the whole period, is that between Nominalism and Realism. Realism philosophized in support of the church, and was in turn protected by ecclesiastical authority; Nominalism contended against the dominion of ecclesiastical power; Realism represents the dogmatical, Nominalism the critical element; Realism fettered individual freedom with the bonds of external authority; Nominalism sought to establish the autonomy of human reason. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, several great events combined in bringing about the ultimate freedom of rational speculation from subordination to ec 6 the grasping of individual reason after a full emancipation from external authority-in short, every element of modern times finds its centre-point in the great German reformation. Luther and many of his distinguished contemporaries did not hesitate to express their contempt of the Peripatetic philosophy. A third cause was a number of disconnected attempts at independent thinking on the part of Peter Ramus (1515–1572) in the science of logic; of Telesius and Campanella in physics; and of Patritius, and Giordano Bruno in metaphysics-all which, however, failed to produce any permanent results. A fourth cause was the rise of the natural sciences. Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo restored to nature the honor of which scholasticism had robbed her, gave a new aspect to the world of thought, and shook men's faith in the authority of the church. The |