men are not so much exposed to it, it is not so destructive as that snake. It is found in the open country, in grass, low jungle, and in the fields, in holes in the ground, sometimes deep down among the roots of trees. It is not often found in inhabited places, but does sometimes find its way into a native hut, as in the case of the one killed in Rangoon, where it disturbed a hutful of coolies during the Burmese war. It feeds, like the krait, on small animals, mice, birds, frogs, lizards -probably on small snakes and even insects. It is not very aggressive, and tries to escape when discovered; but, when attacked, retaliates fiercely. It lies coiled up, and, when disturbed, jerks itself out like a spring, but does not extend its whole length of body. Xenurelaps.-There is only one species of this genus, which is exceedingly rare, and is closely allied to Bungarus. As it does not contribute to the death-rate, I pass it with this brief notice. Callophis.-This genus has several species in different parts of India, which are all more or less brilliantly colored. They are not aggressive, and bite reluctantly. The poison is fatal to small animals, but there is no reason to suppose they destroy human beings; so it is not necessary to do more than enumerate them as Callophis intestinalis, C. maclellandi, C. anularis, C. trimaculatus, C. nigrescens, C. cerasinus. The viperiform sub-order has two families-Viperidae or Vipers, and Crotalida or Pit Vipers. These are represented in India the former by two genera, Daboia and Echis, each of which has one Indian species, viz. Daboia russelli, or Tic Polonga, Uloo-bora, Sea-Chunder, Jessur, and other local synonyms, and Echis carinata, or Kuppur, Afæ, and other synonyms: both very dangerous snakes. The latter has several genera: Trimeresurus, with seven species; Peltopelor, one species; Halys, two species; Hypnale, one species. These snakes are all venomous, but few deaths are attributed to their bite. The Daboia (Daboia russelli), sometimes called cobra-monil and chain viper, is a very beautiful snake; it is of a light chocolate color, with three series of large black, white-edged rings; a yellow line is on each side of the upper surface of the head, these lines converging on the snout; rectal and labeal shields yellow, with brown margin, a triangular, brown, black-edged spot behind the eye; ventral surface yellowish, or marbled with more or less numerous semicircular brown spots on the hinder margin of the ventral shields. It attains a considerable size-forty to fifty inches. I had one which was fortyfour inches in length, and four and a half in circumference. It is common in Bengal, the south of India, Ceylon, and Burmah, and probably may be found all over the plains, and on the hills up to 6,000 feet in Cashmir; but its usual habitat is lower. I am not sure about it in Central India, the North-West Provinces, and Punjab; but, if there, it is less common than further south. Dr. Russell says it is doubtful whether it is not as venomous as the cobra. My experience inclines me to so nearly agree with Dr. Russell as, at all events, to place it next the cobra. Fowls bitten by it sometimes expire in less than a minute. The effect of the poison is different to that of the colubrine snakes; it causes complete fluidity of the blood, and other conditions already referred to. It is nocturnal in its habits, is sluggish, and does not readily strike unless irritated, when it bites with great fury; it hisses fiercely and strikes with great vigor. Its long movable fangs are very prominent objects, and with them it is capable of inflicting deep as well as poisoned wounds. loud hissing, when disturbed, is calculated to warn those who approach it. It does not appear to cause many human deaths, but it may be that its misdeeds are sometimes ascribed to the cobra. The official returns ascribe many deaths to snakes unknown; were the real culprit detected, it is probable that the daboia would figure more prominently than he does at present. It is a hardy reptile. I had one, fortyfour inches in length, which obstinately refused food or water for a whole year, and was vigorous and venomous to the last, when it died suddenly. The daboia is said Its and one can well believe it-to kill cattle frequently when grazing, by biting them about the nose or mouth. In proof of its sometimes sluggish nature, there is a well-authenticated case of a young person who picking one up, and, mistaking it for an innocent snake, carried it home; its true character was discovered when it bit a dog or some other animal. It had not attempted to injure the person who carried it. Echis. There is only one Indian species, Echis carinata (Kuppur, Afæ). This snake is much smaller than the daboia, and grows to the length of twenty inches or more; it is terrestrial and viviparous. I have never seen it in Bengal, but it is common in the North West Provinces, Punjab, Central Provinces, Scinde, and generally in the south of India, in the Annamally Hills, in the Carnatic, and in the vicinity of Madras. It is of a brownishgray color, with a series of quadrangular or sub-ovate whitish spots edged with dark brown; a semicircular band on each side of the dorsal spots enclosing a round darkbrown lateral spot; a pair of oblong, brown, black-edged spots on the centre of the head converging anteriorly; a brownish spot below, and an oblique hood-streak behind the eye; ventral surface whitish, with brown specks. The head presents the appearance of being marked by a cross. The scales are keeled; those on the lateral series have their tips directed downward obliquely; it is the friction of these against each other that gives it the power of making a peculiar rustling sound. The echis is a very fierce and vicious viper; it throws itself into an attitude of defence and offence, coiled up like a spring, and rustling its carinated scales as it moves one fold of the body against another. It is aggressive, and does not wait to be attacked before darting its head and body out at its enemy, the mouth wide open, and the long fangs vibrating, presenting a most menacing appearance. It is very poisonous; the virus is very active, and of the same character as that of daboia. There can be little doubt that it destroys many human lives, as men are much more exposed to contact with it than with the daboia, because it is of so fierce and aggressive a nature. It is said to live largely on the Scolopendride, but probably it preys also on small mammals, frogs, and small birds. For reasons previously given, I am unable to say to what extent it is destructive to human beings; but, from the circumstances under which it exists, there is little doubt that in some parts of India it is chargeable with a considerable number of deaths. The Crotalidæ or pit vipers have several genera in India. They are less dangerous. than their American congeners, but are all poisonous. They are remarkable for the pit or depression between the eye and nos tril in the loreal region; the triangular broad head, and short thick body. The Halys is the only Indian genus or species with any vestige of the caudal appendage, which has given the name of rattlesnake to certain American Crotalidæ, and in this species it is reduced to a horny spine at the end of the tail. Many of the Indian Crotalidæ are arboreal snakes, and in color resemble the foliage and branches of the trees in which they live. There are several genera: Trimeresurus : T. gramineus, T. erythrurus, T. carinatus, T. anamallensis, T. monticola, T. strigatus, T. macrosquamatus. Peltopelor: P. macrolepis. Halys: H. himalayanus, H. elliotti. Hypnale: H. nepa (or Carawilla). Cantor says of Trimeresurus: "Although the genus has venomous organs as highly developed as Crotalus or Viper, the effects produced by wounds of this species at least appear to be less dangerous than might be supposed." Hodgson saw a man who was bitten by one suffer severely from pain and swelling, but he never heard of a fatal case. All who have had any experience say the same- -the symptoms are severe pain and swelling of the bitten part, with nausea, sickness, depression, fever, and even sloughing of the bite, after which recovery is rapid. The effects, in short, are not unlike those produced by an adder. It is needless to discuss this any further, for all the genera and species seem to be about the same in this respect. The Hypnale nepa, or Carawilla, of South India is reported to be very dangerous, and is dreaded; but its bite, if ever fatal, is exceptionally so to man. It is possible that a few of the deaths may be due to these creatures, but they can be but very few. It remains now only to make a brief reference to the pelagic colubrine snakes, or hydrophide. The members of this family may be recognized at once by the peculiarities of their confermation, which is adapted for an aquatic life. They are all, so far as is known, venomous, and inhabit the sea-the salt-water estuaries and tidal streams. They have a very wide range of distribution in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. They have a great variety of form, but the transitions are very gradual; some attain a considerable length-I am not able to say how large, but have not seen one of more than five feet; no doubt they often exceed this. They are very poisonous, and, though accidents are rare, yet I have the records of cases where their bite proved fatal, as in the case of a sailor of H.M.S."Algerine" at Madras; in another of a sea captain at a port in Burmah; another of a fisherman bitten in the Salt Lake near Calcutta-all fatal. The fishermen and sailors on the coasts know their dangerous properties and avoid them. The hydrophida have smaller heads, jaws, and fangs than the land snakes; the fangs have open grooves in some, but not all. The virus is very active, and appears to operate as speedily and certainly as that of the land snakes. They have an elongated body like the land snakes; in some instances it is short and thick; in others it is very thick toward the tail, and most disproportionately elongated and attenuated in the neck, while the head is very minute. The coloration is varied, often brilliant and beautiful. The hinder part of the body and tail is flattened and compressed vertically, almost like the fin or tail of a fish, and it answers the same purpose, for with it they swim with ease and rapidity. They live, with rare exceptions, in the sea or tidal water; when thrown on the land by the surf, as they frequently are, at Poorie and other places along the coast, they are helpless and almost blind. Their food is fish and small aquatic creatures which they pursue and overtake in the sea. There are certain parts of the Bay of Bengal where they are seen in great numbers, and their movements in the blue water are agile and beautiful. There are four genera of the family in the Indian seas: Platurus, Enhydrina, Pelamis, Hydrophis. Platurus has two species, P. scutatus and P. fischeri (Bay of Bengal, tidal streams near Calcutta). This genus has several characters of the land snakes, e.g. well-marked ventral shields body sub-cylindrical and not compressed like the hydrophis; color is black, tinged with yellow. Enhydrina has only one species-Enhydrina bengalensis (Valakadyen); it is very poisonous, body compressed, belly carinate, tail flat and compressed, almost like a fish's fin; color bluish-gray, with dark bands of the same, though deeper color; no ventral shields. Pelamis has only one species-P. bicolor.-one of the most curious sea snakes in the Bay of Bengal; no ventral shields; body flattened, yellow sides and belly, back black; it is called kullundur and is very poisonous. The species of hydrophis are numerous; in the Indian Seas about thirty have been described, and there are probably others. They present a considerable variety of form and coloration; some have elongated necks and small heads, the posterior part of the body being larger than the anterior; others have not this characteristic ; but they have all a strong family likeness, and may be recognized at once by their compressed bodies, finlike tails, and the general absence of well-marked ventral scutæ. Their coloring is also remarkable, green, yellow, black, in bands or rings, being a common pattern. They are all poisonous, and, in a few experimented with, the virus was most deadly. The fangs are small and in some partially grooved. They are entirely pelagic, though they enter the tidal rivers, and, when thrown on shore, are helpless. They are delicate, and seldom live long in captivity. A H. coronata sent to me from one of the tidal streams near Calcutta lived some days in a large tub of salt water, which was frequently changed; it proved its venomous character by biting and rapidly killing a fowl. This snake had a very small head and slender neck, which was more than one-third of the creature's en tire length. It was of yellowish olive. ground-color, with about fifty blackish rings, which were broader than the interspaces. Head and ventral side of the neck black, the former with a yellow horseshoeshaped mark across the frontal and nasal shields; tail had ten or twelve back crossbars; ventral shields distinct, being rather larger than the ordinary scales. Space does not admit of more detailed description of the other species. This one may be taken as a type of all. It is impossible to mistake them, and they are all, as far as known, poisonous. They cause occasional accidents to swimmers or to fishermen, or others who handle them when taken out of nets, or picked up on the shore; but they certainly do not contribute to any extent to the death-rate of either men or domestic animals. It is difficult to conceive of what use the poison can be to them. The mortality from snake-bite is very great. The average loss of life during the last eight years has been 19,880 human beings, and 2,100 head of cattle yearly. I regret that I am unable to state how many of these deaths are to be ascribed to the cobra, or each particular snake, as I have been unable to obtain any reliable returns which entered into this special detail. But when conducting an investigation into this subject in India some years ago, I was then able to make out that of 11,416 deaths of human beings in 1869, out of a population of 120,914,283, 2,690 were assigned to cobras, 359 to kraits, the balance being caused by snakes unnamed. This return is of little value, but it indicates what is well known, that the cobra is by far the most destructive of the venomous snakes of India. Mr. V. Richards, who has investigated the subject closely, says the cobra causes nine-tenths of the · human deaths. The snakes which are most destructive to life are probably in the following order: The cobra, Naja tripudians; the krait, Bungarus cæruleus; the kuppur, Echis carinata; Russell's viper, Daboia russelli; the hamadryas, Ophiophagus elaps; the Raj-sainp, Bungarus fasciatus. The hydrophidae are probably not less dangerous, but they are comparatively rare, and seldom brought in contact with human beings, and thus do not contribute so largely to the death-rate. The number of snakes destroyed, in 1887, amounted to 562,221, for which rewards amounting to Rs. 37,912 were paid. The table shows in detail the number of human beings and cattle killed by all poisonous snakes together, the number of snakes killed, and the amounts paid for their destruction each year from 1880 to 1887 inclusive. Appended also is a short statement showing the deaths from snakebites in different parts of India during the year 1887, the latest reports we possess ; with a late resolution in the Home Department, which shows how far the Government of India is interesting itself in this question. DEATHS FROM SNAKE-BITE IN 1887. In Madras, 1,263 people were killed and 1,070 cattle; 302 snakes were de stroyed, and no rewards paid. In Bombay, 1,168 people were killed and 48 cattle; 311,476 snakes were destroyed, and Rs. 6,269 paid in rewards. In Bengal, 9,131 people were killed and 509 cattle; 35,054 snakes were destroyed, and Rs. 4,433 paid in rewards. In the N. W. Provinces and Oude, 5,765 people were killed and 216 cattle; 25,864 snakes were destroyed, and Rs. 3,140 paid in rewards. In the Punjab, 843 people were killed and 77 cattle; 177,080 snakes were destroyed, and Rs. 22,826 paid in rewards. In the Central Provinces, 928 people were killed and 44 cattle; 2,065 snakes were destroyed, and Rs. 844 paid in rewards. In Burmah, 213 people were killed and 428 cattle; 8,431 snakes were destroyed, and no rewards paid. In Assam, 198 persons were killed and 190 cattle; 269 snakes were destroyed, and Rs. 15 paid in rewards. In Coorg, 1 person was killed and no cattle; 48 snakes were destroyed, and Rs. 8 paid in rewards. In the Hyderabad Assigned Districts, 182 people were killed and 134 cattle; 697 snakes were destroyed, and Rs. 140 paid in rewards. In Ajmere and Merwara, 47 persons were killed and no cattle; 575 snakes were destroyed, and no rewards paid. In Bangalore, 2 people were killed and no cattle; 660 snakes were destroyed, and Rs. 236 paid in rewards. Extracts from Home Department Resolution for 1886, referring to Venomous Snakes. The number of deaths from snake-bite rose from 20,142 in 1885 to 22,134 in 1886. Of the total mortality by wild animals and snakes, no fewer than 18,805 cases occurred in the Lower Provinces of Bengal and in the N. W. Provinces and Oude, and of this number 16,926 deaths were caused by snakes alone. The mortality in the several provinces does not vary much when compared with the figures of the preceding year, except in the N. W. Provinces and Oude, where there was an increase in deaths from snake-bite of 1,499, which chiefly accounts for the somewhat large increase in the total mortality of the year. There was a falling-off in the number of snakes killed from 420,044 to 417,596. As in previous years, the provinces in which snakes were largely destroyed are Bombay, Bengal, the N. W. Provinces and Oude, and the Punjab. The decline is due to a large decrease in the number of snakes destroyed during the year in Bengal, the cause assigned being the same as that alleged for the falling-off in the number of wild animals killed, namely, the small amount available for the payment of rewards. This matter is also being inquired into by the Local Government. In the Hyderabad Assigned Districts, the system of granting rewards for the destruction of snakes, which was in force only in municipal towns, has been extended to towns with dispensaries, and rewards are now paid on the authority of certificates granted by hospital assistants-a measure which the Resident believes will act as an inducement toward the destruction of snakes. As regards the measures to be adopted for reducing the annual loss of life by snake-bite, I stated my views in 1872, and they are much the same now as they were then. The chief points are, to make known the appearance and habits of the poisonous snakes, and to institute proper rewards for their destruction. With a plain description and a faithful representation in color of each species, such as is given in the Thanatophidia of India, the people can be made acquainted with the characters that distinguish the venomous from the harmless snakes, and thus learn to avoid or to destroy them. A rate of rewards varying from 8 annas to 2 annas, according to the species, was and is again suggested. From the last reports published it appears that rewards, when offered at all, are too small; while some local authorities consider the plan of rewards to be altogether futile, some hold that it conduces to the breeding of serpents and their increase rather than diminution. The subject has often received the careful consideration of the Indian Government, and a variety of measures have been resorted to with a certain amount of success; but it is to be feared that, until a well-organized system be adopted and carried out on the lines suggested, the evil wil! not be fairly grappled with and overcome. ; Something has been, but still more might be, done. There should be more concentration and organization; regulations should be laid down and uniformly enforced throughout the whole of India while every encouragement should be afforded to those to whom is entrusted the duty of dealing with an evil which is, to a certain extent, removable, while a higher scale of rewards should be offered for the Until some destruction of the snakes. such measures are generally and systematically resorted to, there will be no material diminution in the loss of human life from snake-bite, which cannot now be rated at much under 20,000 annually.-Nineteenth Century. |