$80,000, and Melbourne University, Victoria, $55.000. The University of New Zealand is an examining body, whose diplomas are recognized as of equal value with those granted by any university of the United Kingdom. This university has exercised a marked influence on the standards required for the elementary teachers of New Zealand. The classified list of teachers shows that 250, or one-tenth the regular corps (i. e., the pupil teachers being excluded), were university graduates.

Among the papers appended to Chapter V is a report on the schoolattendance law of 1894 by Mr. J. Stormont Small, truant inspector, who has conducted the service with great efficiency, and also a paper by Mr. Mark Cohen, editor of the Dunedin Evening Star, on the industrial schools of the colony, which have been an indispensable auxiliary in the work of enforcing the compulsory law.

Education in Central Europe.-In Chapter VI Dr. Klemm discusses various points of interest concerning education in Central Europe. First, the object of polytechnic education is treated by Prof. A. Riedler, of the polytechnic institute of Berlin. This paper advocates a change in the course of study, and points to the results of polytechnic instruction in the United States. A statistical table, giving important items of information concerning technological, agricultural, forestry, mining, and veterinary schools in Europe, supplements the first paper. A statement of what is being done in Europe in fostering school gardens for the purpose of aiding nature study in school, and incidentally also agriculture, will be found helpful at present, inasmuch as this question has begun to be discussed in the press. The rates of salaries paid to teachers of elementary schools in Switzerland are shown in tabular form, similar to the statistics offered for Germany and Austria in the annual report preceding this. A governmental expression on the question of the higher education of women in Prussia, given by the minister of public education in the Prussian legislature, states the reasons why the Government of that State has hitherto hesitated to open the higher seats of learning to women. The customary table showing the percentage of illiteracy in Europe has been revised, and offers opportunity for instructive comparisons. Two articles follow, one on "Examinations" and the other on "Philosophy as a school study," by Prof. Friedrich Paulsen, of Berlin. In the former the learned author balances impartially the good and evil influences of school examinations, and shows their origin and present status in Germany. In the other paper he traces the gradual decline of philosophic study in the secondary schools of his country, and points out the danger for university students arising from it, claiming that the absence of this element from the curriculum of the preparatory schools prevents the student from acquiring a world view, wherein his particular science may be seen in its harmonious relations with other sciences and with the entirety of human knowledge.

The dissemination of hygienic knowledge.--Chapter VII is entitled

"Means for spreading hygienic knowledge among the people." It is the substance of an address delivered by Prof. Leo Burgerstein, of Vienna, at the International Medical Congress, held at Moscow, Russia. The address abounds with practical suggestions, some of which have since been adopted by European governments.

Technical education in Europe. The first systematic effort to foster industry of a high order in the United States, such as the successive governments of France-whether monarchical, imperial, or republicanhave fostered for more than two centuries by means of the porcelain establishment at Sèvres and of the tapestry establishment at Gobelins, has been comprehensively treated in special reports of this Bureau based upon the anticipations and results attending the introduction of industrial drawing, and the establishment of an art normal school by the State of Massachusetts, in 1870. Since that important event in the history of education in this country the movement for industrial education of the people has in addition taken other forms, of which the latest, but by no means the least important, is the establishment of textile schools. In Chapter VIII an account of the European schools for weaving and dyeing is given by Mr. C. P. Brooks, director of the textile school at Lowell, Mass. (who represented this Bureau at the late International Congress on Technical Education, of which he speaks in Chapter IX).

Nowhere else as in Germany is there so widespread and accurate a comprehension and application of the aphorism that knowledge is power. It is a characteristic of the educated and directive classes of that country to systematize knowledge and to reduce it to a curriculum; to formulate it in a programme. The university seminar for training college teachers (Gymnasien, etc.), the normal (as we say) school for training elementary school teachers, the polytechnicum for training engineers, and the so called institutes attached to the university faculties for training expert chemists and physicans all originated in Germany, and thence, too, comes the present form of the textile school. Mr. Brooks notes this tendency. That the manufactures of the leading European nations, and notably the German manufacturing communities, have for several years seen in the trade school a very valuable auxiliary, if not a supreme necessity, to their business is noticed in his report. The number of textile schools in Europe, it seems, does not exceed 30, and 14 of them are in Germany. Mr. Brooks reviews the character of the financial organizations of these schools, bringing into relief the State character of the German textile school and the municipal character of the English school, and notes the prominent features of the textile schools of the several European countries, arranging the

Notably on "Industrial and high art education in the United States: Part I: Drawing in the public schools, preceded by essays elucidative of the report proper, by Isaac Edwards Clarke, A. M., special agent, 1885." This was preceded several years by a preliminary special report.

descriptions of the schools by their nationality, his report being a summary of his observations intended to be suggestive rather than exhaustive.

The history of education in India.-In Chapter X Dr.W. E. De Riemer gives a brief commentary on some parts of education in India. While for this interesting subject there are no statistics or reports available prior to the period of British occupation, it is well known that India is a land where education of a high degree has prevailed for many centuries, and a history of indigenous education in India is identical with a history of its literature. The real intellectual life of the country radiates from the three great religious forces which have been from time to time uppermost there, for the Vedic, the Buddhistic, and the Mohammedan upheavals brought with them great educational awakenings. The character, extent, and influence of the native schools are traced with some detail, and the growth of female education in modern times is considered.

It is of note that the Mahabharata, the greater of the two epic poems. mentioned (containing 200,000 lines and equal in length to 12 Homer's Iliads), is now translated into English prose and published complete in one hundred parts by Protab Chunder Roy (and his widow) in Calcutta, 1883-1897.

The epoch of reconstruction of the common schools in New England, 1830-1865.-In Chapter XI Dr. A. D. Mayo gives the important particulars of the formation of the present systems of common schools in New England and the Middle States. It is a very instructive chapter to the student seeking a clear outline of this epoch of new organization and recasting of educational theories.

Physical training. Dr. E. M. Hartwell presents in Chapter XII a summary of the results of his study and experience in the field of physical training. It is claimed that the teachings of modern science and the lessons of experience demand that physical training should be provided for in the elementary and secondary education of both sexes, and the paper accordingly enters into an examination of the scientific basis of the demand as well as into the history and status of the general subject. The human body is a living machine, capable of transforming and utilizing energy. Regarded as a structure it is an aggregation of cells, so grouped and joined as to form the various organs and tissues.

The essential factor in physical training is neuro muscular exercise. This results first in the increased health of the neuro muscular machine, involving the attainment of a normal degree of size, strength, and working power in the structural parts; and, second, the acquisition of advantageous habits by the neural parts in regard to the transmission and regulation of stimuli. The development of the nervous mechanisms which control the bodily movements is the most important effect of neuro-muscular exercise. The main field of physical education is the

nervous system, and genuine success depends on the skill of the instructor in selecting such forms of neuro-muscular action as are adapted to the sex, age, and capacity of the pupil.

In the evolution of the individual the more general functions, such as the circulatory and alimentary organs, develop earlier than the special functions, as exemplified in the vocal organs and the hands and feet. Similarly the more massive parts of the nervous system develop before the minuter parts. Education, to be safe and natural, therefore, should defer the training of the accessory parts of the nervous system until the development of its fundamental portions has been secured.

During the first eight years of life strenuous drill is not advisable; simple games and elementary gymnastics yield valuable results. During the next eight years both gymnastic training and athletic pastimes should be given a prominent place in the curriculum, but violent exertion should not be permitted. The period between the seventeenth and twenty-fifth years is the period of established adolescence and development, and attempts at record breaking and trophy winning may be encouraged within reasonable limits.

The typical forms of physical training are five in number, and may be styled (1) the Grecian, (2) the medieval or knightly, (3) the British, (4) the German, and (5) the Ling or Swedish. In tracing these typical systems to their original forms, it appears that they had their beginnings in childish plays or in games akin to such plays.

British sports are the most highly developed modern expression of the play instinct, and they reflect more fully than any other modern system of physical training the national spirit of their devotees. They are the inherited pastimes of a manly, self-sufficient folk and have never fully outgrown their primitive characteristics. They have been foilowed largely for their own sake and have been but slightly modified through the efforts of innovating educators and thinkers. In this they present a marked contrast to German turning and Swedish gymnastics, which have been developed chiefly for set purposes by their promoters. In the breadth of its aims, in the magnitude of its proportions and completeness of development as a national institution, and in its abiding influence, the physical training of the Greeks has no parallel. Games formed a chief feature of the religious festivals of the Greeks, and this circumstance reacted both on sculpture and architecture, in supplying the former with models of ideal beauty and in setting the task to the latter of providing suitable places for the games to be celebrated.

The dominant note of the Middle Ages is one of warfare, and education was conceived and carried out almost wholly with a view to preparation for the life of a soldier. Though knighthood and its martial exercises have disappeared, the influence of chivalry remains in the favor still accorded to such bodily accomplishments as riding, hunting, fencing, and dancing.

German gymnastics embrace three well-marked departments, viz, "Volksturnen," or popular gymnastics; "Schulturnen," or school gymnastics; and "Militärturnen," or military gymnastics. The organiza tion of the last two departments is maintained and controlled by the Government for strictly educational purposes; whereas the "Turnvereine," as the societies of the turners are called, are voluntary associations of a social and popular nature. The fondness of the German people for gymnastic exercises is as marked a national trait as the lik ing of the British for athletic sports. The three most eminent names in the list of men identified with the revival and upbuilding of German gymnastics are those of Guts Muths, Jahn, and Spiess. Each was a teacher and writer, but Jahn was an agitator and popular leader in addition. Guts Muths lived from 1759 to 1839, Jahn from 1778 to 1852, and Spiess from 1810 to 1858. Guts Maths by his work and writings prepared the way for Jahn, the "father of turning," and for Spiess, the "founder of German school gymnastics, and the creator of gymnastics for girls."

It appears that Ling, the founder of the Swedish system, derived his first ideas of gymnastics from German sources, but as the director of the Central Gymnastic Institute, founded in 1814, he evolved a system of gymnastics unlike any other. Ling divided gymnastics into (1) pedagogical gymnastics, (2) military gymnasties, (3) medical gymnasties, and (4) esthetic gymnastics. He laid especial stress on exercises without apparatus. In Swedish school gymnastics great attention is given to precision and correctness in the execution of movements; and the system is further characterized by the effort employed in coor dinating the exercises belonging to a single "day's order," not only to each other, but also with regard to the "day's orders" which have preceded and those that are to follow. The semimilitary character and labored rationalism of the Swedish gymnastics make them ill adapted to serve the purposes of popular gymnastics.

In the United States, interest in problems pertaining to physical training has never been so general, active, and intelligent as within the past ten years. Large sums of money have been spent for gymnasia and play grounds for colleges and secondary schools, and cities aggregating a school population of over a million have provided instruction of some sort in gymnastics for their elementary schools. One of the most striking signs of the times is the growing conviction that teachers of physical training must be thoroughly prepared for their work; the success attained by the few normal schools of gymnastics is a further hopeful indication. The best interests of rational physical training have suffered much from the disproportionate infiu. ence exercised by athletic ideals upon scholastic youth. Athletics constitute the most popular and most obtrusive branch of physical training. The mutiplication and growth of athletic clubs has been a notable feature in the history of physical training for the past fifteen years.