of the established church. It was the sense of danger to the whole ecclesiastical system that caused the conservative leaders during the campaign of 1895 to make unqualified promise of support to the paro chial school authorities. An attempt was made to satisfy these pledges by the law passed early in the session of 1897 providing a special grant for the "voluntary" schools; that is, elementary schools, chiefly parochial, under private management. This law is the first departure from the impartial policy of Government action with respect to the two classes of schools recognized by the law of 1870.

The provisions of the new law, with some consideration of its immediate effects, are given in Chapter III. The importance of the law lies in its political and social bearing rather than in the amount of relief afforded to the schools participating in the grant. The chapter also reviews the successive measures by which greater freedom and scope have been given to the elementary schools. These relate to the programmes and the teaching force. The decrease in the proportion of pupil teachers is very marked. In 1876 they formed 57 per cent of the entire number of teachers in England; in 1896 but 29 per cent. In Scotland a similar change has been effected, the proportion of pupil teachers falling between 1880 and 1896 from 40 to 21 per cent of the total force employed. The educational department has recently begun active efforts for the improvement of the pupil teachers as regards both their qualification and the conditions under which their apprenticeship is accomplished.

The report of a special committee appointed to investigate the pupilteacher system is summarized in the chapter considered.

The discussions of school problems before the "church congress" of 1897, cited also in the chapter, show a high conception of the teacher's calling and of the standard which parochial schools must maintain under the pressure of modern conditions.

The failure of the education bill of 1896 caused a postponement of legislation with respect to secondary education. This continues to be the subject of public agitation, and a measure providing for some form of public supervision and assistance is confidently expected in the present session."

Particulars are given in Chapter III respecting the existing provision for secondary education in England and the opinion of English authorities as to the course public action should take in respect to this interest.

The multiplication of university colleges, especially in the industrial centers of England, and their provision for scientific and technical

'As this matter goes to press an announcement is published of the passage of the board of education bill. This measure unites in one central authority functions at present exercised by several administrative bodies and provides for the inspection of such secondary schools as may apply for this service.

training is a feature emphasized in the brief survey of university work.

There has been organized recently a division of special inquiries and reports in the English education department. Its function is in some respects similar to that of our National Bureau of Education, and it has begun the issue of a series of annual reports of great value.

Education in Canada.-In Chapter IV is to be found an account of the educational systems of Canada which, as our nearest neighbor, and a people of similar origin and language to our own, is always of great interest to us. Its experiments at the solution of modern problems in education are all the more instructive to us from the fact that there is very much more attention paid to the central organization there, than is the case with us. It affords us a ready object lesson upon centralization, its many and great advantages, and its obvious defects, as compared with our own system. We are tending toward a stronger centrali zation, but so slowly as not to endanger the good of our local selfgovernment in theory or practice. Our tradition leaves to individuals and small communities the initiative and nearly all the practical details. The consequence of endowing individuals and local communities with such abundant powers is a constant education in political power and general self-direction, but it is the most expensive of all education so far as waste of time and misapplication of energy is concerned. Perceiving this, it is quite natural at first to suppose that it is all a mistake and that centralization pure and simple is the best and most rational, since it secures reasonable things at a minimum of expenditure of means. This is the view of statesmen in monarchies and likewise of such theorists as Thomas Carlyle, and men of great ability belonging to his school-Froude, Ruskin, and others. The trend of modern history is against them, and it seems to them to be a false tendency necessary to be retraced after manifold evils have developed. But the continued progress of natural science and the consequent application of its discov eries to mechanic inventions which save labor in the direction of mere drudgery, and turn it toward directive power and the acquirement of knowledge, is an underlying motive power which works irresistibly toward democracy. When the total product of industry in a community (as in Asia) is only 3 cents a day for each inhabitant, there is no reasonable demand for democracy; it is a political disease and must be suppressed. Nor has its time fully come even when the annual production of a people has reached only 10 or even 20 cents a day per inhabitant. Without steam and labor-saving machinery it can go no higher than 10 cents. But with a production of 20 to 50 cents a day on an average, there is an impulse manifested on the part of the masses to create for themselves by individual effort the means of self-culture and to enter the higher classes of occupations which have for their object: First, the means of luxury and creature comforts; secondly, the means of protec tion of life, property, and public institutions; thirdly, the collection

and diffusion of the instrumentalities of culture. The printed page of book and periodical is diffused widely and more widely, and the consequence is a people at school through life. If the elementary school but teaches how to read, the what to read should be taught by the purveyors of higher education. To learn the technique of science and to follow its discoveries, to learn the higher vocabularies used by poets and the literary class, and to learn human nature as revealed in their productions is a sufficient employment for the span of life stretching on from the age of 21. There is constant progress in producing power among civilized nations and constant stimulation toward the culture that comes of the mastery of books. Hence, too, there is progress in self directive power and a consequent impatience of direction in minute details from a master who requires blind obedience. Enlight

LIST OF OCCUPATIONS.

I. THE LOWER ORDER-PRODUCTION OF NECESSITIES.

1. Procuring of raw materials.

(a) Agriculture and grazing.

(b) Hunting, fishing.

(c) Mining (including petroleum wells, etc.).

2. Transportation.

(a) Teaming.

(b) Railroad.

(c) Water transportation.

3. Transformation of products.

(a) Textile fabrics, cloth, and clothing.

(b) Wood and metal work.

(c) Leather.

(d) Miscellaneous.

II. THE HIGHER ORDER-PRODUCTION OF MEANS OF LUXURY, OF PROTECTION, AND OF CULTURE.

The vocations that provide:

1. Means of luxury and creature comfort, including manufactures that require a higher order of educated technical skill.

2. Means of protection, including

(a) Those who provide amusement and recreation.

(b) Medical profession.

(c) The legal profession.

(d) Officials managing public works or public charities, also Government officials.

(e) Insurance companies and the directive agents of companies formed for guarding the interests, general or special, of society as a whole, or of any particular part of it, charitable associations, trade unions, etc.

3. Instrumentalities of culture.

(a) Moral and religious-churches, etc.

(b) Intellectual and moral education-schools and libraries.

(c) Esthetic, including all trades that produce ornaments on useful goods or that produce works of art in sculpture, painting, music, poetry and literary art, landscape gardening, etc.; also all influences that cultivate taste the formation and care of art museums, etc.

(d) The collection and diffusion of information, editing and printing of books newspapers, telegraph operators, etc.

(e) Pursuit of science and the invention of devices useful in the arts.

enment spreads and is destined to spread with the growing opportunities created by the conquest over nature by science and invention. Self determination will increase and local self-government will become universal and remain so.

Meanwhile, in its crude elementary stages this form of government has evils which must be eliminated. These evils furnish the problems of our school management, and since our neighbors, the Canadians, are approaching them from a different point of view, the history of their school administration is of the greatest service to us.

Not only must there be local authority, but there must be central authority. The two should harmonize and be so adjusted that each one increases the other. A central power that continually enlightens the local powers and supplements them is the desideratum.

In this chapter (IV) are given the statistics of the elementary schools of each Province for 1896, with a brief historical survey of the several school systems.

The system of Quebec offers a decided contrast to those of the other Provinces, and bears much less resemblance to the systems of our own States. Separate schools are there maintained for Catholics and for Protestants, under distinct control and management.

This division, which is extremely interesting in the historic view, has been the cause of much friction, and attempts were made in the present year to secure legislation looking to the unification of the system. Though not successful, these efforts have, perhaps, reacted in such a way as to produce a more vigorous administration of the schools as now constituted.

Private seminaries and academies, and especially those maintained by the Catholic Church, have large enrollments, which explain the comparatively small attendance on the elementary schools of Quebec."

It is worthy of note that Ontario, under the enlightened adminis tration of Minister Ross,' has made the kindergarten a feature of its public-school system; in Nova Scotia, also, public kindergartens are reported.

From a table showing the proportional parts of the school income derived from the Government grant or from local sources, it appears that the latter yield much the larger revenue (from three-fifths to ninetenths) in all the Provinces excepting Prince Edward Island.

A tabular view is given of the higher educational institutions of Canada.

Minister Ross has also greatly stimulated the comparative and historical study of education by the publication of the results of special researches in these directions. To this policy the student of education is indebted for access to a "Documentary history of education in Upper Canada," drawn from original sources by Dr. J. George Hodgins, Deputy Minister of Education. The official service of Dr. Hodgins covers a period of more than fifty years. He was chief of staff from 1844 to 1890, the intimate friend and colaborer of Dr. Ryerson, and to his able direction was due in no small degree the success of the Ontario system of education from its inception.

Education in Australasia.-Chapter V presents a summarized account of education in Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania, including the elementary-school systems and the agencies for secondary and for higher education.

The enrollment in elementary schools, ranging from 17 to 18 per cent of the population in the several colonies, is remarkably large, considering the social and industrial conditions. This result is due in great measure to special efforts for extending instruction to the children of isolated districts. Among the devices employed are house-to-house instruction and conveyance of children to central schools.

The compulsory laws, which have been enacted in all the colonies, are not easily enforced, by reason of natural obstacles; but the average attendance exceeds in every colony 64 per cent of the enrollment. In New Zealand it is higher, rising to 83 per cent. The percentage of attendance on total number enrolled in the United States as a whole is only 68 per cent. In cities and large villages it exceeds this.

The policy of centralized control adopted in the five divisions of Australia has been necessitated by the conditions of newly settled countries, enterprising, ambitious, and impatient of the slow development of local forces.

New Zealand has adhered more closely to the English precedents. Here the local authority predominates in school affairs, with results which commend the system. The working out of these opposite policies is shown by interesting detail in a report of personal observations on the school systems of Victoria, New South Wales, and South Australia by the rector of a New Zealand normal school. The report is reproduced in this chapter.

In addition to the public elementary schools, all the colonies maintain schools for afflicted children, the blind and deaf-mute, and for orphans. Special provision is also made for the training of incorrigible and vicious youths.

Secondary education in these colonies is provided by private agencies, but public scholarships are maintained, which enable promising children from the elementary schools to prolong their studies.

It will be seen from statistics given in this chapter that private schools form an important part of the school supply in New South Wales and Victoria, their enrollment being above one-fourth that of the public schools. The efforts made, especially in New Zealand and New South Wales, to promote technical training, like similar efforts in the mother country, increase the demand for public secondary schools. Already the elementary-school programmes of New South Wales have been extended to include high-school branches, as Latin, algebra, geometry, and French.

Higher education has been fostered in the colonies by Government grants for the support of universities and technical colleges. Sydney University, in New South Wales, receives annually from this source