AVERAGE AMOUNT OF SCHOOLING PER INHABITANT. How much schooling is each inhabitant receiving on an average on the basis of returns for 1897-98? Tables III and IV answer this question, the former table showing this item for all schools, public and private, of whatever grade, and the latter (Table IV) the amount of schooling furnished by the public schools alone in the various subdivisions of the United States. The amount on an average has reached just five years for the entire nation. TABLE III.-Average number of years of schooling (of 200 days each) that would be given to each individual of the population under the conditions actually existing at the different dates specified in the table, and taking into account all public and private schooling of whatever grade. The United States...... North Atlantic Division 1870. 1880., 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. a1897. a1898. TABLE IV.—The same, taking into account only the schooling furnished by public elementary and secondary schools. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. a1897. a1898. The United States...... North Atlantic Division 2.91 3.45 3.85 3.93 3.97 3.99 4.17 4.23 4.28 4.37 4.46 5.25 5.25 a Subject to correction. NOTE. The two preceding tables have been recomputed with revised data, and will be found to differ slightly from the figures previously published. State school systems.-In an appendix hereto Mr. F. E. Upton, specialist in State school systems, has presented in tabular statements the several items of statistics relating to schools that are collected by the State superintendents of public instruction, showing items of attendance of pupils, number of teaching corps, schoolhouses, receipts and expenditures, etc. In Table 1 the population and estimated number of children between the ages of 5 and 18 years are given. These and other items are shown in per cents in Table 2 for better comparison. In Table 3 are brought together for the several States the items of legal school age, compulsory attendance, and the latest actual enumeration of children. More than thirty States (32) have adopted compulsory laws, the majority making these laws apply during the period between 8 and 14 years, although the legal school age is from 6 to 21 in twenty-two States, 5 to 21 in eleven States. In Table 4 a historical survey is made of the total enrollment of pupils since 1870, and the percentage of the popu lation of school age (5 to 18) given in each case. Table 5 gives items of sex of pupils, with percentages. Table 6 shows the percentage of enrollment as compared with total population of school age annually since 1870. Table 7 shows the average number of pupils attending school each day at three decennial periods, for comparison with the same items in 1897-98. It must be understood that this item is reported from daily registers, in which are recorded the number of pupils actually in school for the day, excluding all pupils absent for sickness or other necessity, although they are considered as belonging to the school. The number enrolled includes all that have attended the school for any period during the year. It is obviously not fair to report the item of average attendauce to show the extent of influence of the American school system. It is better to give the number enrolled and specify the average length of the school attendance. This is given in Table 8, the last columu. Instead of saying that the schools of the United States had in 1896-97 an average attendance of 10,089,620 for the average school term of 140 days, it conveys a more adequate idea to say the entire number enrolled in 1896-97, namely, 14,652,492, attended an average of 96.7 days in the year. This gives the actual number of children that attended school in the course of the year and shows their actual amount of schooling, whereas the other gives about two thirds of the number who received schooling and credits them with a greater amount of schooling than they actually received, thus producing two erroneous impressions. The length of school year in actual days taught is given in Table 8, and Table 9 adds an historical survey of this item, showing a pretty steady increase in the number of days taught. The growth of cities and vil lages is sufficient to account for the increase, but the growing sentiment in favor of public schools in the South and Southwest is a considerable factor in the result. Tables 10 and 11 show the proportion of males and females in the corps of teachers in each State and an historical survey from 1870 to the present time. The change from 41 per cent of male teachers to 32 per cent in twenty-eight years, considering the fact that in cities and villages the proportion of children 12 years of age and under amounts to about 83 per cent of the entire number at school, is not so wonderful, for it will be admitted that women are better fitted as a general thing than men for the instruction of children of that age. That the proportion of male teachers is likely to decrease still further with the growth of an urban population is clear from a comparison of the records of the ED 98-II several divisions of the country. The South Central, for instance, had in 1870 a much larger proportion of men than of women teachers-in the ratio of 67.5 to 32.5. This has changed until in 1897-98 the proportion is 52 men to 48 women. But taking the division with most cities (the North Atlantic) for the same period, in 1870 the men were in ratio of 26.2 to 73.8 women, and in 1897-98 as 19 men to 81 women. This may go even a little further and reach the same ratio-17 to 83-that the pupils of 12 years and under bear to the pupils 13 years and over, but it is not probable that it will happen soon. The remarkable increase in secondary and higher education that accompanies prosperous business periods will quite likely delay the result by slightly increasing the average age of school,pupils. Table 12 gives interesting items regarding the average wages of teachers in the several States and divisions, together with other items as to the amount and value of school property, the last item in the aggregate being nearly half a billion of dollars. It is to be remembered in this connection that the property of higher institutions-colleges, universities, and professional schools-is not counted in this table. Table 13 shows the actual returns for private schools from which the annual estimate is made. When States or parts of States do not report the statistics of private schools it becomes necessary to estimate for them on the basis of the returns of the adjoining States or parts of States, or sometimes on the basis of former returns from the States now failing to report. In this way a very close approximation can be obtained. In Tables 14 and 15 the items of school revenue are given for the sev eral States and analyzed so as to show clearly the source of the same, whether from general or local taxes or from permanent funds or rents. With the growth of cities local taxation becomes the main source of school revenues, as will be seen by a comparison of the North Atlantic Division with the South Central in this item. Tables 16, 17, and 18 deal with school expenditures by States and divisions, and give a full analysis of the same, together with a historical retrospect by States and divisions. A number of graphic exhibits have been prepared by Mr. Upton to show the trend of the several items of statistics from year to year.1 Historical sketch of German schools.-This interesting account of the rise and development of the school system of Germany by Dr. Nohle is translated from Rein's Encyclopædisches Handbuch by Dr. Klemm. It is noteworthy among histories of education for the fact that it does not lay the chief stress upon the criticisms and theories advanced by reformers, but sketches the actual conditions that existed from time to time, and touches upon the reformatory schemes only when they have had a perceptible influence in modifying the system. Summer schools in Europe.-Chapter II gives an account of Sum See pp. LXXXVIII-XCVII. mer schools in certain European countries, by Prof. Herbert B. Adams. The work of these schools is akin to the university extension work and to that which characterizes the Chautauqua movement in this country. The National Home Reading Union in England under the auspices of Oxford and Cambridge men has its summer assembly with excursions to historic points. At both Oxford and Cambridge are courses of lectures and study, of which a marked feature is the participation of workingmen. A "Town and Gown Association" in Edinburgh endeavors to promote cooperation between citizens and students, and extended courses. of lectures form a part of the summer work. One of the chief objects of university extension as it appears at Oxford and Cambridge is to direct the reading of people who are educating themselves. The elementary schools of England are practically making readers of the entire population. But what it is wise to read. is not obvious without some help from those who have made the voyage of discovery through higher education. At a summer school in Oxford or Cambridge new worlds are revealed to the farmer boy or mechanic who has learned how to read, but has not yet learned what to read. The late Thomas Hill Green, of Oxford, devoted much of his strength to this work of making his university a power for the elevation and enlightenment of the town people. He was a pioneer in one of the best movements of the age. In France the Alliance Française has labored to extend the knowl edge of the French language and literature in French colonies and other countries. Under its auspices are summer courses, and diplomas are given for specified results. Certain of the summer schools of Switzerland are conducted through the cooperation of English speaking visitors, who endeavor in a systematic way to make the most of their opportunities while in the country. There are also summer schools for instruction in modern languages at Swiss universities. It is noteworthy that the history of education in this epoch has for its chief feature the extension of all forms of education to the people. University extension has for its chief meaning the incitement of the people engaged in hard work and the direction of machinery to begin studies in science, history, and literature. The laborer shall have access to books and continue the meager school education into his after life, so that he may reenforce his mental strength by the instruction of his race, constant learning having become the habit of his life. Education in Great Britain and Ireland.-Chapter III is introduced by a conspectus of the English system of elementary education, from which it appears that the public treasury bears an ever-increasing proportion of the cost of the elementary schools. In 1872, the year after the school law of 1870 went into operation, 37 per cent of this expenditure was met from the Government grant; in 1897, 64 per cent. The law of 1891 authorizing a special grant in lieu of fees remitted. has gone far toward making elementary education free. Eighty-four per cent of the schools are free and 86 per cent of the pupils pay no fees; those from whom fees are still collected are, with few exceptions, in the advanced grades. Private schools, chiefly parochial, enroll 55 per cent of elementary pupils and draw 41 per cent of their support from other than public funds, i. e., from endowments and subscriptions. The board schools-that is, schools managed by elected boards-enroll 45 per cent of the pupils. They draw support from local taxes amounting in 1896 to upward of $10,600,000, or 40 per cent of the entire cost of maintenance for that year. The early age at which children may be exempt from school attendance is accounted a serious obstacle to the efficiency of school training. In 1893 the law fixed 11 years as the upper limit of the age for exempting a child from the provisions of the compulsory law. The law just passed (August 1, 1899), as this matter goes to press, raises that limit to 12 years. The statistics show clearly the effect of the regulations of 1890 enlarging the scope of the night schools. Since that date the attendance upon the night schools of England has increased by 127 per cent; in Scotland, where similar regulations were secured as early as 1883, the increase in the attendance upon night schools exceeds 300 per cent. The public agitation over educational problems is scarcely less now than that just previous to the passage of the elementary school law of 1870, which has determined the character of the system for over twentyfive years. The main fact in the history of the system during that period is the irresistible expansion of the course of study beyond the meager elements originally prescribed by law, and the incidental organization of higher grades of work rivaling in many respects the endowed secondary schools of England. This growth of the elementary schools, combined with special efforts on the part of Government to provide ampler facilities for prolonging the education of the industrial classes, has revealed the disorganized condition of secondary education in England and the waste of time and resources actually existing. The need of a general administrative measure, thus made apparent, led to the education bill of 1896. The unexpected defeat of that measure prevented for the time renewed efforts in this direction. Meanwhile the demands of the parochial schools for further aid from public funds to offset the advantages accruing to the board schools from local taxes became imperative. The demand is, indeed, part of the deep-reaching struggle now going on in England with respect to the future destiny |