and scope of the preparation required. Passing over the programme on Christian doctrine and sacred history, those upon pedagogics, grammar, geography, arithmetic, history and physics, agriculture, industry and commerce, calligraphy, and orthology are all very full. For example, in morals instruction is to be given in the following subjects. Only a very few examples are taken out of many:

20. Obligations of man to his body and person; self-defense; immorality of suicide. 21. Obligations of man to work; evils of idleness. What are temperance, sobriety, chastity, and the opposite vices?

22. Duties of men to each other; obedience; benevolence.

23. Obligations to one's equals: urbanity, gratitude, fulfillment of promises. 25. Obligations to aid our fellow-creatures.

27. The duty of pardoning injuries; immorality of hate and vengeance.

In pedagogics the teacher is examined, among other things, as to

10. Importance of attention; methods of awakening and maintaining it. The will, freedom, moral sentiments, moral science. Instincts, passions, good habits; pernicious effects of scandal upon the pupils.

There are several sections upon methods.

In algebra the subjects embrace equations of second degree, proportion, roots, logarithms, etc.

In the applications of geometry are surveying and surveying instruments.

In drawing there is the use of the scale, and many examples in the different orders of architecture, and in physics such subjects as

11. Gases; atmospheric air: its physical properties; how it is shown to have weight; the barometer; Magdeburg hemispheres.

14. Molecular adhesion of solids and liquids; capillarity; the more common phenomena due to capillarity; endosmosis and exosmosis.

20. Light: hypotheses for explaining its nature; propagation, velocity, and intensity of light; photometers.

21. Refraction of light; its laws; phenomena dependent upon it; prisms and lenses; division of lenses by their curvature, and effects they produce with the luminous body in different positions.

29. Object of chemistry; chemical classification of bodies; analysis and synthesis; reagents; combinations and mixtures; affinity; composition of the air; Lavoisier's experiments on air.

30. Extraction of gold and silver.

These examples are sufficient to show the grade of questions asked. The programmes were published as late as 1893.

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

The preceding figures, as remarked at the outset, are unintelligible unless we know the social and political condition of the country as an outgrowth of its history, and we proceed to give the latter.

The same men who conquered Mexico and Peru settled Cuba and Porto Rico. Indeed, Cortes engaged his men in Cuba and took ship there for the mainland, and that island "has," as Humboldt says, "a

charm that is wanting to the greater part of the New World. It presents remembrances linked with the greatest names of the Spanish monarchy, those of Christopher Columbus and Hernando Cortes." It is curious to inquire what manner of men they were who, although a mere handful, ventured almost without hesitation to explore and conquer vast unknown countries. We observe the contrast between the Spanish conquistadores, the utterly bold, determined, large-minded adventurers, and the English and Dutch colonists of the next century on the northern seaboard. These latter had little of the conquering spirit about them. They left their native country to better themselves in a quiet way and to trade, and their ideas were principally limited to the unambitious parts they had to play. Their natural leaders stayed at home to attend to the promoting and financiering of the colonial interests instead of leading exploring parties in the wilderness. This contrast crops out in many ways. Governor Winthrop wanders three or four miles away from his companions and passes an anxious night alone in the hut of a friendly Indian. A hundred years before, a Spanish monk thought nothing of undertaking an expedition of a thousand miles in a wild country abounding in savages, and the English never undertook any such expedition as Coronado's march. They were not explorers bnt settlers, and only moved inland, as time went on, by a process of extrusion-by the same vis a tergo which drove them from Europeso it came about that all the southwestern part of the United States received Spanish names as the Northwest was named by the other exploring nation, the French. After three centuries the requirements of a political situation stirred up the descendants of the British colonists to conquest, and they promptly dispossessed the Mexicans of their broad territories, and then the discovery of gold in California awakened the auri sacra fames which led them in hordes to the Pacific coast in the congenial search for sudden wealth. There was, however, one point of resemblance between the Spaniards of the sixteenth century and the English of the seventeenth. Both felt a responsibility for the lost souls they fancied they had found, and were zealous for the conversion and, incidentally, the education of the Indians. Wherever the Spaniards went they carried the university with them. No matter how narrow and perverted the education of the monks may have been, there was still in it a reminiscence of the humanities, if in nothing else than the monkish Latin they used, and some of the conquistadores themselves were imbued with letters. Even the private soldier Bernal Diaz was able to write his recollections of the mighty deeds he had witnessed, and he left an account which historians have used as an authoritative document. Like superiority of birth, superior education gave (as it still gives) an intellectual superiority of view, which was due to the European university, whose root fibers, when traced, will be found to penetrate that buried civilization from which all modern civilization has sprung, which once dominated the world with grandeur and

magnificence, and yet filled it with beauty and taste. The humanities give a culture for which no modern innovation, such as exclusively scientific studies, which are purely objective and mechanical in their essence, and therefore not tending to culture, can ever be a substitute; and it is perversion to regard such an abstraction as "science" as a new Muse, instead of the laborious handmaid of civilization, which she really is. So wherever the Spaniards came they brought culture, and it is interesting to note that to them this continent owes its first universities and first printing presses. Printing was done in Mexico a century before it was introduced into New England, and even in far-off Manila a history of the martyrdom of certain missionaries was printed at the College of San Tomas in 1634, six years before the printing press was set up at Harvard The university at Lima is eighty years older than Harvard. This culture, corrupted as it was by monkish narrowness, resulted in time, after the institutions had become multiplied, in turning out scholars, historians, poets, statesmen, generals, and presidents of republics, of the native races, besides scientific writers who have made original investigations of the geology, botany, and mineralogy of their countries. The English, too, in the next century, brought the university with them, and English Cambridge supplied a hierarchy of culture which kept the colony out of barbarism. The university redeemed the English colonies, and the democratizing and equalizing public-school systems came later. The most original work of the seventeenth century in New England, Eliot's Indian Bible, was a child of Cambridge, and its existence was due to the same missionary spirit that actuated the Spanish monks and the Spanish kings, whose peremptory orders to the settlers to care tenderly for the Indians, treat them kindly, educate them, and convert them to the Catholic faith reappear in royal letter after letter. The English, like the Spaniards, showed a solicitude for the welfare of the souls of the natives, but it was manifested on a smaller scale, corresponding with the difference in magnitude between the Spanish conquest and the early English emigration.

As was remarked at the outset, it is important to know the antecedents of a population in which an educational system is established, and it is therefore worth while to give a summary of the political history of the Spanish colonies, and so obtain an idea of the character of the colonists, in order to understand the material upon which education has had to work. A summary of the kind desired is given by Ferd. Blumentritt, the German ethnologist, in an article upon the history of the separatist tendency (Separatismus) in the Spanish colonies, in the Deutsche Rundschau for July, 1898, which is of especial interest, as it gives particulars of the character and motives of the earliest emigrants to the Spanish colonies which are not brought out in the commonly known histories of the conquest. The article was written

before the events of 1898 deprived Spain of the last of her colonies; and the author says:

The names of Columbus, Balboa, Cortez, Pizarro, and Magellan are well known to all. Who of us when a boy did not read of the adventures and heroic deeds of the conquistadores and also of the cruelties they inflicted upon the natives of the New World? From these youthful recollections, and from the influence of the newspapers-often partisan and often misinformed-comes the judgment of the educated portion of our people upon the Spanish colonial relations, a judgment that amounts more or less to this: That the Spaniards, by their "devilish cruelty," have brought the inhabitants of their colonies to despair and revolt. Others see in the financial exploiting of the colonies by the mother country, or in the rapacity and dishonesty of the Spanish officials, the ground and inducement for a war of separation. Much in these views is erroneous, but one feature of them, even if not directly expressed, is true, namely, that only the Spaniards themselves are to blame for the efforts of the colonists to become independent of the mother kingdom. If one is inclined to regard this severe charge against Spain as unjust, let him answer the question: Why is it that it is only in Spanish colonies that separation finds so many supporters? And this further question: How is it that the desire for independence is found in such widely separated countries with such different organizations and populations as New Spain, South America, the Antilles, and the Philippines, manifesting itself in the suicidal fanaticism of white, yellow, brown, and black insurgents all over the Spanish colonial empire from the earliest times until now? The various colonies never had the same social organization, nor were they in the same economical or political conditions. In Mexico, Peru, and New Granada there were Indian farmers in the highlands and negroes on the coast. In Venezuela there were the region of plantations, where negroes predominated, and the llanos where the mixed race of the Llaneros ruled the steppes. The La Plata country had its Gauchos; the Antilles were the best representatives of the plantation system; while the Philippines had their Malay and Chinese mixed bloods, governed by Spanish religious orders-a variegated picture of different races and social organizations-and yet from all has come the same cry: "Out with the Spaniards! Freedom from Spain!" It is therefore clear that the seed of separation was carried from Spain to her colonies, and that not recently either, but more than three hundred years ago. For it was not the example of the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America that started the idea of separation among the Spanish colonies, although this example of the Anglo-Americans was a powerful aid, but the idea was already present. Spanish separation is not the result of the wicked example of the Yankees, but is the consequence of a process continuing through several hundred years, which we will trace from its beginning in the following sketch:

When the Spaniards settled the Greater Antilles and also established colonies on the mainland, in 1493-1520, the Government had only drawn the outlines of the relations between the new settlements and the mother country, allowing the settlers themselves the greatest liberty. Spanish cities were founded on American soil by Spanish citizens, who transplanted to the New World the free municipal constitutions of their native land. The citizens elected their representative city governments and officers (alcaldes, mayores), just as they had done in Spain, and their privileges as independent cities were confirmed by the King. A feudal nobility arose in the midst of the plains, where the Indian villages were divided among the conquerors as fiefs (encomiendas), and a title of nobility often went with these fiefs like, e. g., that of Marqués del Valle, which was given to Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico. By the great emigration to the New World the population of Spain was notably decreased, although not to so great an extent as is stated in some works, and yet the Government of Castile made no objection to the principle of emigration. I speak of the

Government of Castile because the crowns of the two Spanish empires, Castile and Aragon, were not united upon one head (that of the Emperor Charles V) until 1516. The Castilian Government took the position that only subjects of Castile should be allowed to settle in the New World, and even this permission had exceptions, for emigration was strictly forbidden to converts from Judaism and Mohammedanism and to all persons who had been punished by the Inquisition and their descendants. All these restrictions, however, were more or less evaded, for we find foreigners in the lists of the conquerors, who must, therefore, either bave been naturalized as Castilian citizens (as was the case with Magellan, for example) or they were permitted to go by the Government, which, indeed, sometimes took them into its own service, of which there are numerous instances. Neither could the emigration of baptized Jews and Moors and their children—the so-called “new Christians"—or of these under the displeasure of the Inquisition be prevented. On the contrary, these two classes formed the main contingent of the emigrants, at least in the first half century of Spanish colonization, in spite of the combined vigilance of the church and the Inquisition. It is difficult for us now to imagine how those unfortunates, who were seeking an asylum in the New World, could have succeeded in escaping the sharp watch of the Holy Office and have reached the shores of America unmolested, for there were spies of the Inquisition on every ship. Yet not hundreds, but thousands, of those poor people made their escape, and we will cite two facts in proof of the statement, although many more could be given. When Hernando Cortez was summoned from New Spain the Government wished to enforce the prohibition of the emigration of new Christians. Accordingly an enumeration of them was taken throughout the whole viceroyalty as a preliminary to returning them to Spain, but the matter went no further, because the number of new Christians and of those under the ban of the Inquisition was found to be so astonishingly large that the decree of removal to Spain was not carried out through fear of a revolt. There were still more of these suspected subjects in Peru, a fact which should not excite our wonder, because Pern was the most remote of all the Spanish colonies in America, and it was natural for these marked men to endeavor to get as far as possible from the mother country, although even in that Ultima Thule of Spanish America freedom of opinion was not tolerated, and the Holy Office was represented in Lima by a tribunal of the Inquisition as early as 1570. So to Peru flocked crowds of Portuguese New Christians, either directly from Portugal or from Brazil, where converted Jews and Moors and their children were held in slavery. These Portuguese "New Christians" were especially the objects of the zealous care of the Holy Inquisition, because, on account of their business talents and their enterprise in mining, they soon acquired more wealth than the Spanish "Old Christians." We meet these Portuguese Jews (or "Judaizing Portuguese") in all the auto da fés of Lima, and, notably, on the occasion of the great ceremony of January 23, 1639, which was conducted with the customary pomp. Seven of the accused appeared upon white horses and with palm branches in their hands. They were the fortunate ones who had succeeded in proving their innocence. Fifty were condemned to wear the garment of disgrace, the symbol of heresy, the "San benito." Among those condemned to death was Don Manuel Bautista Perez, who was noted for his wealth. He owned the house still known in Lima as "Pilate's house." The silver mines of Huarochiré, celebrated for their productiveness, belonged to him, besides two large plantations. He was found guilty of Judaism, and was condemned on that account and as a leader of the Judaizing Christians. With him were burned eight wealthy merchants and one of the best physicians of his time and country, Don Francisco Maldonado, a native of Tucuman (now Argentine), all being condemned for heresy and Judaizing. At the auto da fé of November 17, 1611, fourteen Judaizing Portuguese figured, and the Inquisition applied to the audiencia of Lima to expel the Portuguese, who were all more or less suspected of Judaizing, rom the colony. Accordingly, the viceroy, Don Pedro de Toledo y Loira, Marquis de Mancera, required all the Portuguese in the colony to report to the authorities to obtain passes and go to Brazil or elsewhere