In Baden, for instance, in 1860, a law was passed concerning the relation of the church to the state, which law affirmed the general principle with regard to the schools, namely that the management of the schools was a function of the state. Religious education might be conducted and inspected by the church authorities, but "without prejudice of the uniform state authority over institutions for instruction and education." A secular central authority was established in 1861 in the supreme school council. The real struggle began when in 1864, by a special decree, state inspectors were appointed for public elementary schools. The presidents of local school boards, who were the superintendents or inspectors by ancient custom, were to be appointed by the Government; clergymen ordinarily, as heretofore, might be chosen for that office, but the law acknowledged no obligation for such a choice. District (county) school commissioners, as State officials, Catholic and Protestant, were also appointed. The Catholic hierarchy opposed these appointments vigorously by refusing all assistance in school matters, and by breaking off all communication with the Government. The Protestant clergy likewise showed discontent with the provisions of the new law. The struggle was interrupted by the events of the war of 1866, and afterwards was concluded by a compromise in form of a new law (1868) which in some points yielded to the demands of the clergy. In Bavaria, from the beginning of the sixth decade, the desire for a school law was strongly felt, and attempts were made to meet the wishes of the people. As a first step to this end may be considered the passage of a teachers' salary law, dated 1861. A bill for a school law dated 1867 produced much agitation all over the State. The cause was here as elsewhere the proposed separation of the school from the church. A compromise between the two chambers of the diet was not accomplished. In place of a law, the minister of education, von Lutz, during the seventh decade, introduced by decree some of the modern features of organization and management into the public-school system. Thus, for instance, secular was acknowledged side by side with ecclesiastical inspection, and the mixed school (containing both Catholic and Protestant children) was declared permissible. Other States also regulated their school system during the second part of the century upon a modern basis. Thus Würtemberg did so by the many additions to the law of 1836 (mentioned before), which additions were all decreed since 1858. A model course of study for ungraded schools was issued in 1870. In Saxony, in 1873, the public-school law of 1835 was replaced by a new one; the normal-school system was regulated and given an official course of study. In the duchy of Gotha a school law was passed in 1863 and revised in 1872.

Also in Austria considerable changes occurred during this century in the field of public education. After the passage of the "Political constitution of the German public schools" of 1805, which was an expression of retrogressive conservatism, the schools remained for over ED 98-6

forty years upon a low plane of development, partly in consequence of this law, partly because of the general stagnation under the domination of Metternich. Only since the revolution of 1848, which put an end to the régime of Metternich, the State again turned its attention to public education. A new and powerful impetus was given the improvement of the schools by the disasters of the year 1866, which led to the passage of a liberal imperial public school law in 1869 applicable to all the crown lands of Cisleithania.

(8) Future prospects.-The history of the German school system can look back upon a long development. It shows that the school has ever been closely connected with the most important interests of the German people and always nearly related to everything that has deeply agitated the people. It is obvious that the present time is anything but a time of satisfied reposing in a position reached after long struggles; in many respects it is a time of investigation and transition. In the foregoing pages it has been the object to indicate this.

In the secondary schools (formerly represented exclusively by the gymnasium or classical school, now by a variety of school forms) modern education will not cease to claim equality with the classical; the future perhaps will have to decide whether it deserves equality with classical education. Of course, with reference to the separation of higher professions into learned and technical, it will have to be determined how far preparatory education and school organization must provide for them. At present this is an open question in Germany. The lower high schools, so-called burgher schools, justly demand more attention and better development of their own character. The elementary school will need an undisturbed growth and continuous development in future, and will need to keep in contact with the entire intellectual life of the nation, especially in regard to the matter of instruction. Even the universities can not decline to listen to the demands for improvement in their methods of teaching. Other questions will arise in future. A new social order and new transformations of science will not fail to demand the establishment of new forms of institutions and give the system new matter of instruction.

Those now living may desire that in the new much of the old may be preserved which has proved of benefit. In the university the liberty of teaching and learning, and the strictly scientific character of all that is taught; in the various kinds of secondary schools an education toward severe and, at the same time, free intellectual labor; in the burgher schools the endeavor to offer a rounded and well-grounded practical education, and in the elementary schools the aspiration to perform the noble civilizing task claimed for it, as far as the energy of society and the state will admit.

1 War with Prussia.

CHAPTER II.

SUMMER SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, FRANCE, AND SWITZERLAND.

By HERBERT B. ADAMS, Ph. D.

CONTENTS. I. The National Home Reading Union-Summer meeting at Chester.Chautauqua in England; the summer assembly; summer excursions; summer lectures.

II. A summer meeting in Cambridge.-Historic associations; colleges founded by women; summer student life; conferences on University Extension; excursion to Ely; garden parties; lectures; expenses.

III. The Edinburgh Summer School.-Town and gown; Scotch history read backward; life in a Scotch college; club life in colleges; Robert Louis Stephenson; the summer school; municipal hygiene; new geography; geographical excursions; musical recitals: Edinburgh summer meeting, 1897.

IV. An Oxford Summer Meeting. -Historic associations; the town; the university; summer lectures; conferences; Worcester college; case of Joseph Owen; the conversaziones; recreation; gardens and boats; a critical review.

V. Vacation courses in Paris.

VI. Summer schools in Switzerland.-University of Geneva.

THE NATIONAL HOME READING UNION AND A SUMMER MEETING AT CHESTER.

In May, 1887, appeared in the Contemporary Review an interesting article entitled "Chautauqua—A popular university." It was written by Dr. John H. Vincent (now Bishop Vincent), one of the two founders of that great educational organization which takes its Indian name from a lovely lake in southwestern New York, where summer meetings are still held. The article was due to a suggestion of the Rev. Dr. J. B. Paton, of Nottingham, a friend of Dr. Vincent and a strong believer in popular education. For the first time many Englishmen learned of the existence of the so-called "Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle," which offers a systematic course of reading in history, literature, science, art, and religion. It was stated that the membership included more than one hundred thousand persons and extended not only through the United States and Canada, but reached even Europe, India, China, South Africa, and the isles of the sea. Dr. Vincent described the beneficial influences of a well-planned course of good reading, occupying a period of four years and supplemented by special reading courses of various kinds. He pictured the gathering of the people, "probably seventy-five thousand different persons during the summer," to hear lectures on science, history, and philosophy, to enjoy concerts and other pleasant recreations in that wonderful academic grove on the shore of Lake Chautanqua.1

Dr. Vincent concluded his descriptive and inspiring article with these prophetic

1 For a full account of "Chautauqua," see monograph by H. B. Adams in Report of Commissioner of Education for 1894-95, vol. 1, p. 977.

words: "Whether or not a similar movement may be begun in England I do not know. All that is best in its educational features is already carried on under the 'University Extension Movement' and other noble enterprises of this great English people. The summer gathering like that at Chautauqua may be impracticable in the moist and uncertain climate of the British Isles; but in imagination I have already seen old Haddon Hall' aglow with torches and hearth fires, its empty chambers for a time again occupied, its great dining hall echoing with song and speech and prayer, its green lawns filled with people who have come from the busy scenes to rest and recreate, and the meanwhile to enjoy instruction and to receive inspiration from those who are able to give it, and whom but for some such unique and special occasion they might never have seen. In my dreams I have seen what good work for the homes and the schools and the homeless and the out-of-school multitudes of England might be accomplished by noble lords and men of princely fortune, whose ample palaces and gardens seem to have been waiting these many years for a use and service which would make them pleasant and goodly places in the eyes of the Lord who loveth the children of men, and who loveth them also and especially who love and help their kind. But then, these are only the dreams of 'A stranger and a foreigner.'" 2

Chautauqua in England.-Dr. Vincent's article and Dr. Paton's enthusiastic initiative led, in July, 1887, to the foundation in London of the National Home Reading Union, which in its aims, management, methods, and summer meetings has consciously or unconsciously reproduced many of the best features of the original Chautauqua. Both of these educational societies attempt to guide readers of all ages in the choice of books. Both seek to enroll members in a great reading association or guild. Both group their members, wherever it is possible, into local reading circles for mutual help under class leadership. Both enjoy the advice and cooperation of educational experts, college and university men, bishops and other clergy, in the selection of good literature and in the shaping of courses. Both publish an educational magazine for the practical direction of the work. Both have to some extent their own special editions of text-books and reading matter. Both issue syllabi and bibliographies on a great variety of special subjects, and both have succeeded in placing their best students under the personal direction of good teachers. For many years in America, college professors and college presidents have ministered to the needs of Chautauqua. From the beginning Oxford and Cambridge men have guided the National Home Reading Union. The energetic organizer of the great and growing University of Chicago has served also as the principal of the Chautauqua system of popular education. Dr. Percival, formerly headmaster of Rugby and now the lord bishop of Hereford, is to-day the chairman of the council, and Dr. Hill, master of Downing College, Cambridge, is chairman of the executive committee of the English Chautauqua. On a recent "Recognition day," or Chautauqua commencement, August 19, 1896, President Eliot, of Harvard University, gave

1 Haddon Hall is an old English baronial mansion, the seat of successive English families, the Avenells, the Vernons, and the Rutlands. The house overlooks the Wye in Derbyshire. Various styles of architecture from the Norman to the Mid Renaissance are embodied in Haddon Hall. Sir Walter Scott refers to it in his " Peveril of the Peak."

2 Bishop Vincent's dream regarding the popular use of some of the old "halls" of England is not altogether visionary. The city of Birmingham long ago, aided by workingmen and other benefac tors, purchased "Aston Hall," a fine old mansion of the Jacobean period, and converted it into a free public museum and art gallery. This stately hall, built by Sir Thomas Holte, contains more than a hundred apartments. Among the finest rooms are the splendid entrance hall, the chapel, the great drawing room, and the magnificent "Gallery of presence," said to be the finest in England with the exception of Hardwicke and Hatfield. Aston Hall is open to the public every week day from 10 a. mu. till dark, and on Sundays from 2 to 5 p. m. Street cars run frequently to Aston Hall. The park

of fifty-five acres attracts crowds of Birmingham people every afternoon. There are beautiful flower gardens and a bowling green. In front of the hall is the old plaisance and toward the sunset are sloping terraces still attractive to the eye. For the children and working people of Birmingham the park is truly a paradise.

the address to the graduating class amid assembled thousands of enthusiastic Chautauquans. A corresponding English event occurred at Chester, June 29, 1896, on the occasion of the eighth annual assembly of the National Home Reading Union, when the bishop of Peterborough, Dr. Creighton, formerly professor of ecclesiastical history in the University of Cambridge, discoursed on "The moral aspect of history," and agreed with Napoleon's definition of civilization, that it consists partly in material, partly in intellectual, but chiefly in moral progress. Thus, from various examples in two English-speaking countries, we notice that representative men in church and university are lending their aid to these great modern movements for the higher education of the people.

There are certain features in the English system of home reading which deserve mention: (1) The preference shown by the management for standard and longapproved literature; (2) extensive use of popular and cheap editions of good books; (3) excellent bibliographies, or book lists, on a great variety of historical and literary subjects; (4) circulation of portfolios of prints, photographs, and other illustrative material for quickening the interest of local reading circles; (5) employment of printed syllabi or suggestive outlines prepared by university men for the helpful guidance of class leaders and local reading circles; (6) examination papers for testing home reading; (7) encouragement of local lectures, or university extension courses, in connection with local reading circles; (8) summer meetings in academic centers like Oxford or places of historical interest like the cathedral towns of Salisbury and Chester; (9) summer holidays by the seaside or in the lake district or in Scotland, for groups of fifty or sixty persons, a week at a time, from the last of May to the 1st of October, under the leadership of university men or well-known representatives of the Home-Reading Union; (10) utilization of the best directive, social, educational, religious, and scientific forces in the realm, and of the most interesting historical and natural environments.

Old Chester.-At the summer meeting in Chester it was most instructive to observe how local, archæological, architectural, and regional interests were all combined to make a national assembly of English people a pronounced success. The city itself is most interesting and picturesque. Chester is the municipal development of an old Roman camp or castra, where altars and inscriptions belonging to the Twentieth Legion may still be seen in the Grosvenor Museum. The very streets and walls of the city are of Roman origin. Underneath the quaint, mediæval rows of shops and arcades one may find the remains of Roman baths and ancient pottery. From the walls of Chester one may look down upon Roman pillars and sculptured stones. The walls afford a noble view of the grand old cathredal and its burying ground, as old at least as the Abbey of St. Werburgh, founded in 660 A. D. She was the daughter of a king of Mercia. Not far away are the ruins of a still older cathedral, St. John's, one of the earliest stone churches in England. There in the distance flows the winding Dee, between which and the river Wye is still traced Offa's Dyle, which no Welshman was supposed to cross. The Dee Bridge was built two centuries before Columbus and the Cabots sailed. Yonder, beyond Hawarden Castle, is the blue range of Welsh hills, from which the ancient Britons repeatedly made tribal forays against Roman, Saxon, and Norman invaders. The Dee Bridge is contemporary with the final conquest of Wales and the first prince of that name. Viewing the borderland from the walls of Chester, one realizes the strategic importance of that old Roman camp and Norman citadel.

Chester is a city of historic contrasts. Ships laden with supplies from Rome once

This Chautauqua address on "Five American contributions to civilization," by President Charles W. Eliot, was published in the Atlantic Monthly, October, 1896. The five contributions are: (1) The substitution of discussion and arbitration for war. (2) Acceptance in theory and practice of the widest religious toleration. (3) The safe development of manhood suffrage (4) The welcoming of newcomers to political freedom. (5) The diffusion of well-being among the people. This address has since been published in a volume of educational papers by President Eliot, entitled American Contributions to Civilization.