Lyons. The lowest salary paid a rector is $2,600. The rector is assisted by an academic council,1 in which there is a hint of local influences, since it includes members chosen by the minister from the councils of the departments and of the municipalities, which are elected bodies. The professional influence predominates, so far as numbers go, the majority of the members of the academic council being professors elected by their colleagues.

The deliberations of the academic council related formerly to secondary and to superior institutions, but by the transformation of the faculties into universities the academic council ceases to have jurisdiction over them. Their affairs are administered by a general council composed as follows: The rector, the deans of the faculties, and two delegates from each faculty, elected by their colleagues." Thus the universities have become organic and self-governing, so far as comports with their character as State institutions. This is a change whose effects are felt beyond the circle of the universities themselves.

The law imposes upon the universities the task of developing specialties and of providing increased equipments, but at the same time permits them henceforth to control a large proportion of their income. There are already signs of a revival of the local activity in respect to learning which formerly characterized several centers. The traditions of this earlier period survive in many private associations for the promotion of science and letters which have withstood political revolutions.3

The reorganization of the universities will have its effect also upon the secondary establishments (lycées and communal colleges) which prepare students, for matriculation. The endeavor to free these secondary schools from the effects of a too rigid control, to impart to them independence, spontaneity, and individuality, has been the

The academic council is composed of the academic inspectors, one for each department included in the academy; the dean of the university faculties, a certain number of professors chosen by their colleagues and two members appointed by the minister from the general councils of the departments, and two from the councils of municipalities that contribute to secondary and superior establishments. (Law of February 27, 1880.)

2

* The constitution was determined by decree of July 25, 1885, the first of a series of measures which culminated in the law of July 10, 1896. The decree of 1885 permitted the faculties to hold property, to receive gifts, and to manage their own estates. They were also empowered to receive funds from cities, departments, private corporations, and individuals. The law of 1896 provides that from January 1, 1898, the respective universities may retain the fees for tuition, registration, use of library and laboratories.

3 Among these associations may be noted the Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Belles-lettres of Bordeaux, founded 1712; of Marseilles, 1721; Academy of Sciences, Inscriptions, and Belles-lettres of Toulouse, 1809.

Such was the avowed purpose of the decrees of August 4, 1890, and June 4, 1891, modifying the courses of secondary instruction. In his circular of instruc

least successful of all endeavors undertaken by the Republic for the improvement of education. The spirit of these efforts is clearly set forth in the review of M. Marion's work, appended to this article. They are being renewed at this time and will be aided by the revived spirit of university freedom. The development of specialties that is going on in the universities will necessarily tend to break up the extreme uniformity of the classical schools. At the same time the influence of another order of secondary schools which have developed upwards from the department of primary instruction is working to the same end. These superior primary schools, or, as we should say, high schools, although authorized by Guizot's law of 1833 as a feature of a national system, are truly local in their origin, having arisen in response to the demands of modern business and being an integral part of the new life, the era of the bourgeoisie, as it is sometimes and, perhaps, contemptuously called. These schools, liberally supported by the municipalities, are essentially modern; that is, scientific and technical. Their influence is already marked and is destined to increase.

It is in the department of primary instruction that the greatest need of local interest arises, and since this interest can hardly exist apart from the sense of responsibility it is here that the anomalous character of the French system is most clearly seen. Every commune in France is obliged by law to establish a public school. But the communes do not control and manage their own schools, as do districts and towns in our country and in English-speaking countries in general.

2

Reference must here be made to the service of inspection which, like the academy system, represents the central authority throughout the country. This service comprises general inspectors, whose oversight extends to all grades of instructions; academic inspectors, at least one for each department, who are appointed by the minister, but subject to the academic rector, and primary inspectors who come into the closest relations with the individual schools. The academic inspectors are the most important of these functionaries so far as the interests of elementary schools are concerned. They name the candidates from whom the prefects (civil chiefs) of departments may appoint

tions accompanying the decrees, M. Bourgeois, then minister of public instruction, urges the principals of secondary schools to exercise more freedom in respect to the daily routine and to promote the natural, spontaneous activity of the students. (Bulletin Administratif, No. 922, 1890, supplement).

1Guizot's law of 1833. Reaffirmed by law of June 16, 1881.

There are thirteen general inspectors assigned to secondary instruction, five to primary, besides a certain number to the oversight of special subjects, as manual training, gymnastics, etc. Three general inspectresses also have the oversight of infant schools. These officers visit the section of country assigned to them during the winter and return to Paris in the spring for the work of preparing examinations, reports, etc. Their service dates from a decree of March 9, 1852.

full teachers; have the sole appointment of probationers and a large measure of control over all teachers. They must approve the timetables of individual schools, and receive the reports of the primary inspectors of their respective departments. They have also to establish amicable relations between the prefecture and the academy, to mediate, as it were, between the exigencies of politics and pedagogy, for a man may be an excellent teacher but opposed to the party in power, and in that case he may be supported by the inspector and opposed by the prefect.

This general oversight is supplemented by the closer surveillance of the primary inspectors, of whom there are between 450 and 500, or about 1 to every 150 schools. They visit the schools of their respective districts twice at least in the year and report their state to the academic inspector; they preside over the teachers' conferences, conduct the examinations of candidates for the certificate of primary studies, report infringements of the compulsory law, direct the establishing of public schools, decide as to the opening of private schools, of classes for adults, the creation of local funds for aiding poor pupils, etc. The discipline and the reward of teachers is also largely determined by their recommendation.1

With this close oversight maintained by special officers of education. and by the departmental prefects, all of whom owe their positions to the central authority, there appears to be little chance for the exercise of local authority in respect to the schools; but if from the administrative side the schools seem to be wholly the creations of the State, from the financial standpoint the view is changed.

3

The taxes on which, after all, the whole fabric rests have to be raised from the people. Besides the four direct taxes levied by the State for general purposes, there is a school tax amounting to 8.12 centimes additional to the product of the four direct taxes. These taxes accrue to the public treasury, from which an annual appropriation is made covering the salaries of primary teachers and the current expenses of primary normal schools. In addition to the school tax, the communes provide the sites and buildings for the primary schools, the furnishing and care of the same, the wages of servants in infant or other schools, the allowances made to foremen, assistants, and workmen required for special courses-agricultural, commercial, or industrial-and also lodgings for the regular teachers or money equivalent for the same. The funds for these expenditures are voted by the municipal or communal councils, which are elected by the citizens of the commune. The statistics do not enable us to determine what proportion of the

A decree of January 18, 1887, determines these duties.

By law of July 14, 1884, the direct taxes are the tax upon laud, the tax upon personal property, the license tax, and the tax upon doors and windows. Law of July, 1889, Chap. III, Art. 27.

amount appropriated by the State for the expenses of primary schools is covered by the 8.12 additional centimes.

In a comparison of the school income of 1887 with that of 1892 it is stated that in the former year the State contributed 49 per cent of the total obligatory expenditure for primary schools and in the latter year 67.6 per cent, and that the increase is due chiefly to the transfer of the 8 centimes additional to the State budget1 which was first effected in 1890.

In

The interest of the people in their schools is not, however, solely a financial one. In each commune a local school committee (commission scolaire) is formed to supervise and encourage school attendance. This committee consists of the mayor, or of an assistant delegated by him as president; of a cantonal delegate, and in communes comprising several cantons of one delegate for each, appointed by the academy inspector; of members designated by the municipal council, not exceeding in number one-third the members of the council. case the municipal council fail to nominate these members they are appointed by the prefect of the department. These committees were constituted to assist in carrying out the law of compulsory instruction and have no authority with respect to the matters and methods of instruction. They meet formally for business once every three months on the call of the president or the primary inspector. In case any accusation is made by them against guardians or parents, appeal may be made by the parties interested to the prefect. For obvious reasons they have accomplished little in respect to the enforcement of the obligatory law and have been of little account save where their efforts have been directed chiefly to promoting the well-being of the pupils. They afford rather proof that local interest is the strongest inducement to the maintenance of effective schools, a truth which is emphasized further by the effects of the funds for the aid of poor pupils (caisses des écoles) maintained by the communes. As to the prefect of the department, who has larger authority with respect to the schools than any officer outside the educational body, self-interest naturally prompts him to render himself acceptable to the people over whom he is appointed.

I remember [says Mr. Bodley] to have seen the préfet surrounded by the leading citizens of Lyons, distinguished men who devote their lives to the local institutions of the second town of France, the independent spirit of which is their pride.

1 Statistique de l'enseignement, 1891-92, p. cxxv.

* Law of March 28, 1882.

3

A department is divided into arrondissements which are administered by a subprefect. A canton is a division made with respect to judicial affairs, a justice of the peace being assigned to the chief place of each canton. The canton is entitled to a representative in the departmental council and to several representatives in the council of the arrondissement. A commune is a community entitled to self-government. A large commune, as Paris or Lyons, may include several arrondissements or several cantons.

We may concur, with reference to this whole system of local administration, so unlike that of our own country, in the opinion which this author adds:

If, therefore, a great civic population, composed of conflicting elements, accept complacently the governance of an imposed authority, it is clear that the system is in accordance with the sentiments of the community.

It has been said that under the Republic there is less freedom in respect to primary education than before the revolution, when it was left entirely to the communes. In reality the schools were at that time under the control of the church. It is, as already stated, the purpose of the State to break up the monopoly of the church, not by destroying church schools, but by maintaining and favoring public schools. It has adopted for this purpose the university organization of Napoleon, but it has infused therein the spirit of professional liberty rather than repressed local activity. Says M. Faquet:

The diverse laws which have established in France the liberty of primary, secondary, and superior instruction are decentralizing revolutions.

It is proper to notice in this connection that the civil liberty of the communes is continually increasing. Mme. Darmesteter points out in a recent article that the law of July 24, 1867, transferred the authority controlling the discussions of the mayor and council from the bureau in Paris to the prefecture. The Republic has gone further; the laws of April 7, 1884, have greatly increased the power of the mayor, "and by the institution of permanent committees have enabled private citizens to partake, in some measure, of the affairs of the Commonwealth. Finally, the law voted on October 27, 1896, gives a certain financial control to the municipal councils and adds to their faculties."1.

In view of the movements here traced, the official statistics assume an importance beyond that of serving merely to show the present state of the various institutions.

The following tables are from reports published under the Republic, which comprise also revised summaries of statistics from 1829 to 1876, the date of the first report under the present government.2

'Review of Bodley's France by Mary Darmesteter.-Contemporary, July, 1898, p. 62.

2

The reports issued by the ministry of public instruction since 1870 are: Statistique de l'enseignement supérieur, 1876, 1878, 1888; secondaire, 1876: secondaire des garçons, 1887; secondaire des jeunes filles, 1887; Statistique de l'enseignement primaire, 1876-77, 1881-82, 1886-87, 1891-92. The minister has published also for several years a brief annual report of primary education.-Résumé des Etats de situation de l'enseignement primaries.