later they might make use of this knowledge for the purpose of inventing new, useful contrivances." This idea remained paramount. The education thus defined and ardently desired, was obliged, in the nature of the case, to gain space in the curriculum by occupying that hitherto reserved for Latin; hence it was frequently proposed to establish special classes for future merchants, artisans, etc., in the secondary burgher schools. Johann Julius Hecker undertook to carry out this idea practically. In his "realschule," established in 1747, he included the three kinds of instruction for boys, i. e., a German, a Latin, and a realistic course or school. With this act a division of the secondary school system was made, each branch of which has been developed during the present century-at least a good beginning in that direction has been made. The social classes whose educational needs the three school forms serve, are, according to Hecker's opinion: (1) Farmers or peasants and day laborers; (2) Citizens (by which term he meant well-to do denizens of cities), artists, soldiers, and large landowners; and (3) The class of men pursuing learned professions. The realistic school tried to give knowledge of all things pertaining to practical life by means of object lessons, especially by the showing of models. In the hall of models of the institution there were objects to be seen for all branches of human activity, besides straightedges, drawing and measuring instruments, also machines and contrivances of various kinds, buildings, ships, plows, mills in miniature, complete merchants' shops, collections for the manufacture of leather, the textile industry, and the culture of the silkworm, etc.; furthermore, a botanical garden and a mulberry plantation were joined to the institution. The "realschulen" were not at first all uniform in organization and curriculum, but represented sections. Thus one was a manufactory, another an architectural, a mining, an engineering section, etc. The realistic-technical education of our latter days exhibits the same characteristics. It begins with special education, which meets certain local or national needs. These separate sections of education are in no organic connection, but gradually they develop into complete schools, and either offer or require, as a condition of admission, a general education.

Institutions similar to that of Hecker were established in Wittenberg, Stargard, Züllichau, Breslau, and Erlangen, but they were all either abandoned or changed in their character. The Berlin institution, however, remains unchanged, and became under A. G. Spilleke (from 1820) again an important model for the development of the system of realistic schools. The problem never ceased to be discussed during the eighteenth century. A pamphlet relating to this problem by the abbot Resewitz, on "Die Erziehung des Bürgers zum Gebrauch des gesunden Verstandes und zur gemeinnützigen Geschäftigkeit," 1773, was dedicated to King Friedrich II. But only the revolutions at the close of the century and the great commotion during the early part of the present century produced new conditions which furthered the object of realistic secondary schools.

IV. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

THE UNIVERSITIES—THE NEW HUMANISTIC CLASSICAL SCHOOLSTHE SYSTEM OF REALISTIC HIGH SCHOOLS-THE PRESENT PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOL.

(1) The universities.-Upon the territory of classical education the nineteenth century accepted the inheritance of its predecessor. Through the classic period of German literature (Goethe, Schiller, Wieland, Herder, Lessing, and others) the influence of Greek philosophy upon German culture was decided. At the same time scientific knowledge of antiquity was considerably advanced by Fr. A. Wolf and his successors; philology was the dominant science in the universities at the beginning of the century. The rapid extension of this science was noticeable in the growing number of philological seminaries in the universities, for this was the form in which the new century attempted to satisfy the necessity for a better preparation of secondary teachers. It did not correspond of course entirely to that which had been intended, for while the seminaries of the eighteenth century tried to give pedagogical education, those of the nineteenth century offered philological exercises. It was thought sufficient for educational practice if the students were qualified in their science and knew what to teach.

The reform in the organization of the university prepared during the eighteenth century was completed during the early part of the nineteenth. An equalization of the four faculties was perfected. The further history of the German universities to the present time would be a history of the growth of modern science. It would show how, according to the enormous increase of knowledge, the various faculties have enlarged their equipment with means of instruction, etc., but the organization remained essentially the same: The preparatory or college course was definitely excluded from the university; the philosophical faculty is now a school for adults, as well as its three sisters. In some universities the increase in knowledge, or rather the multiplicity of sciences, has led to experiments with a new organization. Thus, for instance, a division of the philosophical faculty into a linguistic-historical and a mathematical-scientific section, or the constitution of a special faculty of political economy or science of state, has been attempted. These experiments, however, do not seem to have obtained large importance; they are still without influence upon the uniform character of the institutions. This uniform organization is kept intact resolutely, and to foreigners it appears as a decided advantage of the German university system. Our university whose character has been formed in historical evolution is, on the one hand, an institution for professional preparation, on the other hand a school for general culture. With regard to the latter, it may be said that it continues the general training of the gymnasium or college. Furthermore, it is not only the highest kind of school and the last stage of higher education, but also the scientific

workshop of the nation. Only with reference to the former condition does it belong to the state school organization; but the scientific character of its instruction is regarded as indispensable. By means of the university science is spread to the remotest domain of practical life; the representatives of the higher professions are not to accept dogmatically the theoretical principles of their procedures, but they must be enabled to understand them fundamentally, to prove them to themselves and to others, to examine, and, when occasion offers, also to transform and enlarge them. In this bright picture which our universities offer to German as well as to foreign observers, there are shadows, of course. Their purely scientific purpose threatens to confine and obscure their practical purpose. Of late, voices are heard from the legal and pedagogical professions which complain that the universities do not sufficiently pay attention to the demands of professional practice. (Paulsen, Wesen und geschichtliche Entwicklung der deutschen Universitäten, 1893.)

(2) Classical high schools.-With the new century humanism entered upon its undisputed domination in the classical schools. The new humanistic gymnasium was founded; it remained during the whole. century the prevailing form of secondary education, and with its spirit. German education has ever since been filled. The gymnasium is the embodiment of the idea that an intense occupation with Græco-Roman literature and familiarity with the philosophy of classic antiquity will give the best general preparation for every higher profession. The clearness and noble simplicity of the Greek, the earnestness and dignity of Roman thought and feeling are to be comprehended by the German youth in the gymnasia; they are to fill his soul, so that they will induce similar thought, feeling, and action. It was but natural that this aim, even during the best period of the existence of this school form-i. e., during the first part of the century--was not always reached by the students, but the enthusiasm of the teachers for this ideal often enough carried away the students. This modern humanism did not always keep itself free from that superfluity of Latin writing and rhetorical exercises which characterized the humanism of preceding centuries. It seemed to be necessary for the purpose of becoming familiar with antiquity that the beloved language of the Latin authors, especially that of Cicero, could be used orally, and often the whole system of instruction was disarranged in the endeavor to impart that facility.

Humanism in Prussia was made the governing center of the classical schools (gymnasia), when, after the breakdown of the State in 1806 (battle of Jena), the necessity was felt of filling the life of the nation with more ideal contents for its rejuvenation. Wilhelm von Humboldt, the friend and companion of the Weimarian poets, as well as Fr. A. Wolf, was placed in 1808 at the head of the newly established section of education in the department of the interior; he took the most prominent part in this work. Under the ministry of Altenstein (1817–1840)

the privy councilor, Johannes Schulze, added to the course of classical education in the gymnasia the modern branches of scientific study. He established the Prussian gymnasium, which tried to realize the ideals of humanism and to satisfy as much as possible the modern wants of education. Complaints of overburdening were consequently soon heard, and they have continued to the present time. As early as 1837 they were vigorously expressed in a sensational publication by the physician Lorinser.

The new classical school education took another course in middle and south Germany. Here, through the influence of the scientific activity of Gottfried Hermann, the Leipsic philologist, and also in consequence of the organization of the Bavarian classical schools by Friedrich Thiersch (1829), humanism was made the center of gymnasial education, while mathematics, physics, history, geography, and other branches were considered of inferior importance. The students lived an intellectual life wholly within the world of antiquity-a life which surpassed, perhaps, in intensity and warmth, but also in narrowness, that which filled the Prussian schools. Latin compositions and orations, Latin carmina and disputations, and interpretations of the authors were made in fluent Latin and regarded as a most praiseworthy application of life in a foreign range of ideas. Taken as a whole, humanism agreed with that period in which the political conditions of the country induced the individual who would waste his strength in political dreams and doctrines to seek a satisfying philos ophy and a world's view far from the present time in the solitude of past historical events.

Hand in hand with the renewed humanization of the classical schools went the more minute defining of their aims in relation to the higher and lower steps in the system of state education. As the universities excluded the preparatory course during that time, the latter was more clearly defined thereby. From among the many Latin schools (differing greatly in their courses) from which graduation to the university had been rather arbitrary those institutions were selected which, on account of their sufficiently extended course of study, were granted in future the exclusive right of preparing for the university. The remaining schools became simple Latin schools, progymnasia (incomplete gymnasia), or were changed to burgher schools. Examinations for graduation were provided by the state authorities in the selected institutions, which from that time alone bore the name "gymnasia.” Examinations for the teaching profession in secondary schools were also ordered, and for this purpose regulations were issued concerning the amount of knowledge necessary. Finally the schools received special plans of instruction in detail. In connection with this systematization may be mentioned the progressing secularization of the entire secondary system of education. The teacher's office was more and more detached from the pastorate. The administration was taken out

of the hands of ecclesiastical consistories and given over to secular school boards (curatoriums). Lastly, departments of education were established in nearly all States of Germany. This process of establishing a strictly gymnasial course and of making classical education independent could be observed in all larger German States during the first decades of the century. In Prussia, the example of which was followed by the other States, the graduation examination was decreed as early as 1788-at first only for the purpose of proving qualifications for the use of stipends and scholarships, later for the purpose of proving qualification for attendance in the university. In 1834 entrance examinations in the university itself were abolished. They had been obligatory for candidates who had not entirely finished a gymnasial course. Upon the establishment of a superior school commission (in 1787), and upon that of an educational section in the department of the interior (in 1808), followed, in 1817, the establishment of a special ministry or department of public worship and education. Rules for the examination of teachers were issued in 1810, and again in 1831, and model-school programmes in 1816, and again in 1837.

The rigid organization thus produced has brought with it undeniable advantages to the system of secondary schools. It guarantees the success of the work in each institution and secures to the whole system a uniform support or income independent of advantages or disadvantages of the times. But, on the other hand, time has also thrown into bold relief the faults of the system. Liberty of interest in intellectual work has been suppressed in the student, and the necessary severe fulfillment of the duties officially required has led to extreme and exhausting exertion. For this reason, in the present, a desire is expressed in many places to restore to the gymnasium a greater liberty of action. Even the venerable leader of the Prussian secondary school system, Ludwig Wiese, when resigning from his office in the department of public instruction, pronounced it to be his opinion that the state, after having secured to the gymnasium its definite position, should relax in the severity of its supervision and the minuteness of its regulations, in order not to prejudice the intellectual life of the students. "The strength and fertility of the policy of the Prussian State," he said, in his Paedagogische Ideale und Proteste (page 103), "has been proved in the schools during a long period, but there is danger lest, upon the field of intellect, this power become a tyranny." Outside of Prussia the schools kept free from this evil for some time, but the greater uniformity of the political institutions has aided the same policy since 1870 in the other States also.

The classic time of modern humanism is, as has been stated, the first part of the present century. After 1840 other interests began to gain advantage over it. New sciences, such as general and comparative philology, German and Romance philology, etc., grew up; others, such as history, commenced to develop, and the natural sciences occupied the ED 98- -5