changed according to the newly developed science of state and law that had only recently been represented in Germany by Pufendorf, who died in Berlin in 1694. The medical science of the Middle Ages, which had chiefly consisted of reading texts of Hippocrates, Galen, and others, now commenced to turn to individual observation and deduction. Taken as a whole, the university, it may be said, only just then began to become a modern institution. That which constitutes the characteristic of the modern German university, free scientific research and investigation, was now turned to account, and that change dates from the close of the seventeenth century. The place of scientific knowledge fixed in the writings of ancient authors and handed down from generation to generation was taken by the new science which must prove the truth of its axioms before every new generation, and which may be changed and extended by anyone through his own investigations. The philosophical faculty was severely shaken by the new method. Not only that the ancient philosophy of Aristotle had to give way to modern philosophy, but also that the humanistic studies had to recede during that time of transition. The classical authors gradually disappeared from the university course and were relegated wholly to the gymnasia or preparatory schools. On the other hand, the philosophical sciences, in consequence of their modernization, approached nearer to the standard of the three professional sciences, theology, law, and medicine, and resulted in a development of the former preparatory course of arts which made it equal in rank with the three professional faculties. Hence the modern division of the university into four faculties is traced back in its beginnings to the educational revolution at the close of the seventeenth century.

The

(2) Gymnasia (classical schools) to the middle of the eighteenth century.Modern education entered the gymnasia also at about 1700. "gallant" sciences were taught at first in private or supplementary courses outside of the regular instruction, as in former times humanistic studies had been joined to the scholastic system. By degrees, however, they were introduced into the usual courses of study, first in small towns, later also in the schools of large cities. Knowledge of the French language became more and more desirable in urban society, also some knowledge of history, geography, and mathematics. The famous "Pædagogium," which Francke founded in Halle (1700), framed its course of study to suit these requirements; it became a model preparatory or finishing school for a large population. Besides Latin there were taught at this institution Greek and Hebrew, but only as optional studies. Reading in Greek was restricted to the New Testament. On the other hand French, geography and history, mathematics, and German composition were regular studies. The tendencies of the time, which inclined to a knowledge of civil life and occupations, as well as to training in polite manners, were met by visiting artisans in their workshops, artists in their studios, by giving instruction concerning

the cultivation of the field, garden, and vineyard, and exercises in carying meat, folding napkins, peeling apples, etc. Despite this variety in the course of this school, as in others, Latin was still the chief branch of study, and required the largest amount of time. The subordinate nature of the nonlinguistic scientific branches was characterized in Francke's pædagogium by devoting to them only one daily afternoon lesson. In Latin the aim was still, as it had been in the sixteenth century, "to master this ancient language orally and in writing," and the purpose for which this was done was still the same, "to obtain from the classics a treasure of general human knowledge which could be put to use as occasion required in Latin letters, orations, poems," etc. The schools were still following the old routine which the wellknown author, Nicolai, ridiculed when saying, "they declined, conjugated, expounded, analyzed, scanned, phrased, and what not." As in centuries past, the advice to avoid pride and presumption was still derived from Hesiod. Cicero's work on "Duties" was still read owing to its "fine moral contents." Humanism still held its position in classical education in spite of the hostile influences that played upon it. Outside of school, however, there had grown up another world from which people looked with contempt upon the narrow circles within which school education moved and had its being. In the words of young Lessing: "As a pupil I believed that there were many things learned in school which would be of no use in the world, and as a student I recognized this fact still more clearly." This characterizes the situation of the actual life and work of the school at that time.

(3) The new humanism.-Under these circumstances it might have been expected that with further progress of the realistic-scientific elements of education they would soon have been placed in the center of the classical school course, and that the old classical humanities would have disappeared. Philanthropinism, the well-known pedagogical phenomenon of the second half of the eighteenth century, went further in this direction: It would give to the realistic sciences in the gymnasia at least the same position which the humanistic studies occupied. But that which might have been expected from the previous development did not occur. Realism, or modern education, so called, having influenced classical education since 1600 in various ways, came to a standstill about 1740. In its place humanism rose to a new period of vigor. In a soil that had been tilled so long, and from which people already began to turn away with contempt and weariness, suddenly new treasures were discovered. The ancients became again the teachers of the present-only in a different manner.

This unexpected revolution was closely connected with the change that took place in the entire intellectual life of Germany at that time. The nation began to make itself independent of French influence. In literature Klopstock and Lessing broke the fetters of French classicism. An ardent desire for a deeper culture peculiar to the German

people asserted itself. But the soil of national life was too poor in germs for a purely German culture, hence scholars looked for new models and found them in classic antiquity. The ancient authors became again the masters of culture and taste; with this difference, though, that it was not desired to learn how to express their thoughts as well as the learner's thoughts in Latin, but to become familiar with their manner of thinking and feeling, for the purpose of enlarging and ennobling German thought and speech. From this standpoint Greek, on account of its more valuable literature, assumed a higher importance, and, by degrees, a superiority over Latin. The intellectual life of the nation was more and more subjected to the directing influence of Greek during the second part of the eighteenth century. Winckelmann awakened that view of Greek art which has since become the standard, not only for the comprehension of sculpture, but also for poetical works. Homer and the Greek tragedians were the incomparable models of Goethe and Schiller in epic and dramatic poetry, and in a well known letter Schiller praised his friend Goethe as a Greek genius whom fate had thrown into a northern climate, and who now produced Greek art and literature out of his own consciousness. The period of classic German literature shows a fusion of Greek and German thought. To prove this we merely recall "Hermann und Dorothea," "Iphigenia," and “Die Braut von Messina.”

The university which was the most prominent nursery of modern humanism was that of Göttingen, established in 1734. Here it was where Joh. Math. Gesner, and after him Chr. Gottlob Heyne, labored for the revival of classic learning, both being convinced of the highly instructive value of the ancient authors. "He who reads the works of the ancients," said Gesner, “will enjoy the acquaintance of the greatest men and of the noblest souls who ever lived, and will get in this way, as it happens in all refined conversation, beautiful thoughts and expressive words." In the same sense, and at the same time, Joh. Aug. Ernesti labored in Leipsic as rector of the Thomas School, and as professor in the university. He, too, pointed to the benefit derived from the study of the classics: "That thus we receive in early childhood, doctrines of philosophy and wisdom of life from the wisest and best educated men of all ages; furthermore, that we thus learn to recognize and understand clearness, dignity, charm, ingenuity, delicacy, and elegance in language and action, and gradually accustom ourselves to them." Friedrich August Wolf, who taught in Halle subsequently to 1783, enlarged and partly finished this work. He raised philology to a "science of antiquity," and won for it an independent place among the branches taught in the universities, as well as among sciences in general.

This newly arisen culture was not confined to universities; it entered the gymnasia at the same time, finding there a particularly favorable fostering place. Göttingen, Leipsic, and Halle furnished the teachers

for this new view. For the two States Brunswick and Lüneburg Gesner prepared a new school law in 1737 (Schulordunug), and Ernesti prepared one for the electorate of Saxony in 1773. In Prussia the new humanism was introduced into the schools by the minister of Frederick the Great, Baron von Zedlitz, in 1771. But immediately another need became apparent. The profession of teaching in secondary schools until then had been a stepping stone to the church pastorate, or a harbor of rest for wrecked students, and the necessary preparatory study for the high school teacher had been an appendix of the study of theology, or was per se considered a part of theology. This idea had to be given up. In the second part of the eighteenth century the want of a special education for teachers of secondary schools was felt very acutely. Already Aug. Herm. Francke had in his time tried to provide for this emergency by establishing a seminary with free board for indigent students, and inducing them to become teachers, first of all, for his own schools; but this example had remained without imitation. It was not accidental that Gesner in Göttingen opened a philological seminary for theological students, but with the well-understood intention of giving special education for the art of teaching. Fr. A. Wolf founded a similar one in Halle. He labored with energy toward self-dependence of the science of philology, by preparing professional philological teachers for high schools. As a student of Heyne in Göttingen he had insisted upon being matriculated as "studiosus philologiæ," contrary to all existing customs; later he emphasized, as university professor, the necessity of independent philological study with professional examination. This resulted in the recognition of teaching as a separate profession. This tendency to separate the classical school system from the church naturally resulted in establishing, in 1787, in Prussia a supreme school board (Oberschulkollegium). The newly developing humanism also began to separate internally from the church. Regarding the ancients as representatives of a view of lite and world worthy of imitation, it absorbed ideas pregnant with paganism. This contrast, however, was not perceived at first, but became glaring during the next century.

The new system could not remain without influence upon the form of the universities. The philosophic faculty, formerly only a preparatory department, had now fully attained the rank of the other three faculties. This part of the universities not only received a scientific enlargement of its sphere of instruction with the addition of philology, but also a practical purpose in the task of preparing teachers. Since then this work of preparing teachers for advanced schools has become the most prominent object of the former faculty of liberal arts, in the same manner and with the same validity that the professional education of physicians, clergymen, and lawyers is the object of the other three faculties. It is reasonable to assume that this situation is an advantage to all concerned; it saves the faculty, whose function is the more ED 98 -4

general cultivation of the sciences, from having its work dissipated in tempting diversions of scientific interest, and gives it a backing of uniform practical requirements.

(4) The German school system-Potent influences.-The system of purely German schools (elementary schools in which the mother tongue was the medium of instruction) experienced a considerable advancement during the eighteenth century. Three tendencies of the intellectual life during that period were of importance for elementary instruction: Pietism, enlightenment, and the absolutism of the State. Pietism (see previous pages) not only tried to awaken the individual to a higher religious consciousness, but produced in its adherents an ardent desire to promote the welfare of their brethren by Christian charity. During the time of enlightenment (Periode der Aufklärung), which influenced everybody, especially in the second half of the century, French realistic doctrines remained dominant. Modern science led the Western people to a criticism of everything existing in state, church, and society. It became a principle of thinking to take nothing for granted that could not be justified before human reason. With this was combined a general tendency toward utilitarianism, because only the useful seemed reasonably to be a justifying aim of acting. A lively desire to advance the happiness of the individual and the state, the people, and, in fact, all of mankind, manifested itself; and that period must be credited with having worked with energy and enthusiasm in realizing that desire. The time of enlightenment finally found its personification in the absolute state. The sovereign principality of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries developed, theoretically and practically, the idea that guiding its "subjects" toward a reasonable and happy life was a task which, as a matter of self-evidence, devolved upon the sovereign, and upon him exclusively; no objection was raised to investing him with the necessary absolute power.

(5) Francke and Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia.-Pietism, then, it was which, at the beginning of the century, gave a considerable impulse to the system of German schools. The before-mentioned Francke had begun, as clergyman and professor in Halle, in 1694, to provide the most necessary instruction for poor children of his community. From this private enterprise a school for the poor developed, with the branches of study then customary in German elementary pay schools. When numerous children of citizens of Halle who were willing to pay asked admission to this school the city authorities were induced to establish several German burgher schools under the direction of Francke. Soon an asylum for the education and support of poor orphan children was added. These attended the German schools, or if they showed ununsal talent, the Latin school of Francke's institution, for this remarkably active man had also a Latin or classical school connected with his institution. In 1705, of the 100 boys in the asylum 55 were intended for higher studies, 45 for trades. Francke became in this way the intel