new school regulations, and the books of Comenius were used in several places. But the classics remained the principal part of secondary and higher education; only Greek was gradually pressed into the background, and Latin became the dominant study. Soon Greek was studied only as far as theologians needed it, and the lectures on Greek were confined to the New Testament. The Greek-Latin school of the Reformation became the Latin school of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

(2) Modern French education-academies for the nobles.-After the thirty years' war the general situation for the system of advanced education had radically changed. The denizens of cities were depressed and had to work hard to maintain their bare existence. The formerly influential citizens were obliged to leave to the nobles the dominating position in the nation. For the nobility there arose a new model of a splendid civilization which they tried to imitate, as in the sixteenth century antiquity had been the model. In France, under Louis XIV, the State, represented by royalty, assumed such power and perfection, developed such dazzling forms of life in the higher classes of society, and such a rich and flourishing literature grew up, that the German nobles sought compensation in them for what the life of their own nation could not offer them after the devastations of the terrible war. Now began the period of French influence whose superiority was not to be broken for a hundred years. With French civilization there entered Germany those new sciences which had been developed by western nations-philosophy, mathematics, physics, and the new science of law. Of course they must not be considered in that theoretical abstraction in which they are elements of education to us, but in their relation to practice and in connection with the supplementary sciences depending upon them. Mathematics and physics aroused interest in their application to technology and science of war; and, besides, the proper science of government, history and geography, statistics, genealogy, and heraldics were cultivated.

The ideal of education of German nobles was accordingly composed of the knowledge of French and other modern languages, and of various accomplishments, seemingly indispensable for a nobleman educated according to French ideals, such as the arts of courtly conduct and of physical accomplishments as dancing, fencing, riding, etc. Such an education, however, could not be given by the old humanistic gymnasia and universities. Therefore special schools for young nobles were established, the so called "knights' academies" (Ritterakademien), of which some have been preserved up to date without being distinguished at present in their course of study or methods from other secondary schools. They originally corresponded in their organization to a complete gymnasium with some higher or academic studies added. Greek and Hebrew were omitted in these schools; in their place, beside the indispensable Latin, modern languages, French, Italian, also Spanish

and English, and the new sciences were taught and careful instruction in all "knightly" arts was given. The necessity for a special education of the nobility having existed in earlier times, similar schools could be found occasionally also before that time, but the flourishing period of academies for the nobility was the time after the great war. Thus, for instance, in 1653 in Colberg, 1655 in Lüneburg, 1682 in Vienna, 1687 in Wolffenbüttel, institutions of that kind were established; others came into existence later.

For this reason the education of the nobility was segregated from the intellectual life of other classes. The latter, as before, found its culmination in the classical schools and universities, but had a pitiful existence; its representatives were scoffed and given the term "pedants," while on the other hand the sciences and their representatives were called "gallants." Only toward the end of the century the new education approached and entered the old universities and preparatory schools.

(3) Instruction in German—Duke Ernest (the pious) of Gotha.—It was important for so called German instruction of the seventeenth century that Ratichius and Comenius and their partisans demanded a better cultivation of the vernacular; first, in the classical school, the pupils should not enter upon Latin "before they could read German fluently, write and speak it." This demand was not superfluous, because the old method was still in vogue, according to which the pupils were, soon after the simplest primary work in German was completed, introduced to a foreign language; sometimes they were taught reading in Latin first. Instead of this, it was urged, good instruction in German should be given in the lower grades, and it was repeatedly demanded that the pupils of Latin schools should learn grammar not in Latin, but in German first. For this reason, for instance, the native language was taught in the three lower grades of the school which Ratichius estab lished in Koethen, that is, reading and writing of German in the first two, and German grammar in the third grade, for those who intended to study Latin. This reenforced and independent German instruction offered the benefit of a purely German education to the people, since the classical schools in the cities were the common or burgher schools in their lower grades. The purely German schools, not connected with classical schools, did even more in that direction, for they offered a complete and methodical instruction in the native language exclusively. The educational reformers intended to give German education dignity and self-dependence. This education, they claimed, should no longer remain in uncertain dependence upon classical schools, but be represented partly to a larger extent in exclusively German schools, partly serve as a basis for classical education. For this reason in the school organism, which Comenius planned in his "Didactica magna,” home education by the mother was followed by a school of the mother tongue ("schola vernacula"), which he wished established in every community, and which should be attended from the sixth to the twelfth year by all

children of the community, also by those who were intended for higher studies. Upon this common school should follow the classical studies in gymnasium and university.

In this plan, it will be noticed, Comenius advocated a general compulsory education. He demanded that all men, poor as well as rich, should partake of this instruction. Of course he saw that the times were not ripe for the realization of his idea. In many places, so he himself affirmed, no schools at all were established; in other places provision was made only for the children of the better situated classes. But this advice resulted in the fact that in some small States welldisposed princes decreed compulsory education for all children. For existing schools Comenius, following the tendency of the time, demanded the introduction of modern sciences; the child should become "acquainted mentally with the realities surrounding it." In the "schola vernacula” the course should therefore contain, beside religion and singing, reading, writing, and arithmetic; also a general view of history, a little cosmography, and a description of trades and arts.

In the Duchy of Weimar the principles of the reformers found their application as early as 1619, where, through the agency of Superintendent Kromayer, a disciple of Ratichius, a new school system was organized. All children, boys as well as girls, should, "as much as possible," attend school. More important, however, is that which a few decades later was done in the Duchy of Gotha by Duke Ernest, the pious. The advancement and organization of public instruction in his State is by far the most important action taken during the seven teenth century. The duke, immediately after his accession to the throne (1640), ordered Andreas Reyher, also a partisan of the educational reformers, to prepare a plan for a new school system, the socalled "Schulmethodus," which appeared in 1642. In this document was ordered what should be done in the whole State with boys and girls in villages, and with the "lowest groups" of the school children in the cities in regard to German education. In three grades, following one upon the other, religion, hymns, reading, writing, arithmetic, and natural sciences were to be taught. Religious instruction is specially emphasized, but also reading and writing in German, which is to proceed to exercises in composition. In the sciences the children are to learn to measure time by the hourglass or sundial, the rising and setting of sun and moon, the cardinal points, plants, and animals; furthermore, ecclesiastical and secular things, as, for instance, the Thuringian country and what is found in it, "as trenches, roads, offices, hospitals; something about authorities, judges, merchants' business," etc.; and lastly, a little instruction in geometry and physics. General compulsory education was decreed. The parents should send their children to school from the fifth to the thirteenth year of age; in cases of withholding children from school the parents were to be punished with fines, which fines should be employed to support poor pupils. The schools were to be kept open in winter and summer. The

teachers were directed to keep a roster of the pupils and note their attendance. Clergymen were the supervisors and inspectors of the schools. But the duke did not rest satisfied with ordering and decreeing. He took care that better teachers were available; he had schoolhouses built, and organized a regular system of school inspection, while Reyher prepared the necessary schoolbooks "according to the new methods." The duke furthermore gave from his own exchequer large sums for increasing the teachers' salaries, and induced large landowners to do the same; he began also to take care of teachers' widows and orphans. He regarded it as a Christian regent's duty to interest himself in the education of his subjects. The idea of a Statechurch school system as advanced by Protestantism found much support in this manner. Unfortunately, among his successors, to whom the imitation of the court of Versailles seemed a higher object, all that was done in behalf of education was lost.

In other States of Germany similar attempts were made, but they were not carried on with the same consistency. The lower-school system had naturally suffered most by the devastations of the thirty years' war. In some districts it had entirely perished. But in Würtemberg regulations were issued during the last years of the war which were intended to reestablish the German schools. In 1672 (twenty-four years after the war had closed) things had advanced no farther than that in some places elementary schools were opened in summer once or twice a week. In the archbishopric of Magdeburg, after the close of the war, Administrator August endeavored to establish a system of German schools, but he met with insurmountable difficulties in rural districts. In Brandenburg the Great Elector Friedrich Wilhelm, in his church order of 1662, invited churches and communities to see to it that in villages as well as in towns well-appointed people's schools be estab lished. He thereby laid the foundation of the Prussian public-school system, which, though ordered by the state, remained an institution. of the church, and more particularly of the local communities in regard to management and material support.

(4) Private schools.-The great elector, in his church order, had strictly prohibited the hedge schools (Winkelschulen). Indeed, the public school system in this century also was obliged to fight for its existence, because the system of private schools lost nothing of its popularity. In the cities the complaints of the licensed Latin and German schoolmasters continued against their less privileged competitors. Artisans and women too lazy for other work, it was said, opened schools. Their pupils were those who had run away from the city schools without paying their fees, and who, moreover, scoffed at their old teachers. The hedge-school teachers were taking the bread out of the mouths of poor school assistants, who might be employed by the rich as private tutors after school hours. The Hessian "school order" of 1656 undertook to regulate these private schools. It contained the

following provisions: No private schools (Nebenschulen) should be kept without the permission of the authorities; teachers, as well as pupils, should be under the supervision of the rector (principal) of the city schools; private schoolmasters should urge their pupils to frequent church attendance and introduce no other books in their religious lessous than those used in the public schools; nor should they charge disproportionately high tuition fees. This order and similar ones in other States show plainly that the German private schools were still an important factor of the entire system of education.

(5) Catholic elementary schools.-For the Catholic countries it remains to be said that in the seventeenth century the order of the "Patres piarum scholarum," commonly called the "Piarists," took public elementary education in hand. Their system was established in 1600 and anthorized in 1622 by the Pope. The branches of study taught by the order are essentially the same found in other schools-reading, writing, ciphering, and religion.

(c) THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. (1) Evolution of the modern university. Modern civilization, which developed after the great war, began to enter the German universities during the last decade of the seventeenth century. Christian Thomasius, when professor in Leipsic, vigorously attacked the teaching of jurisprudence and philosophy in vogue in the universities. It was an unheard of innovation when he announced in 1687 that he would lecture in the German language upon a modern philosophical book, for up to that time Aristotle and the Latin language had held undisputed sway in the universities of Germany. Thomasius soon made himself impossible in Leipsic by his opposition to old-established customs, but he found a warm welcome in the neighboring state of Brandenburg, where the Elector Friedrich III, later the first King of Prussia, was inclined to favor the new tendency. Chiefly influenced by Thomasius, this monarch undertook to establish a new university at Halle in 1634. This new institution was intended to be the first representative of modern education. Thomasius himself was intrusted with the reform of legal and philosophical education. For theology, among others, August Hermann Francke was called, who had also been expelled from the university of Leipsic on account of his modern views. Francke was one of the promoters of pietism, of that religious doctrine which in the first part of the eighteenth century tried to establish a life of faith in the individual. Pietism and modern science joined hands as formerly in Wittenberg reformation and humanism had done. From Halle the reform soon spread to other universities. The innovations which took place concerned all the faculties of the old universities. Theology, which already in the sixteenth century, soon after the death of the church reformers, had returned from the mere study of the Old and New Tes taments and Augustine to a perfect dogmatism, was soon filled with that deeper theory of faith advocated by Francke. Jurisprudence