be able to read it themselves. The new church, however, more than the old church, depended upon intelligent comprehension of the creed; therefore special instruction in religion was necessary, and for this purpose Luther offered in his catechism an appropriate text-book. In many places, in consequence of the Reformation, instruction in the catechism was arranged which was conducted in most cases by the sacristans. Similar conditions are disclosed by Bugenhagen, who ordered that presents should be given every year from the general church treasury to the two German schoolmasters, employed by the city council, who taught their pupils something of the word of God, the decalogue, the creed, and other things.

This kind of instruction assumed a more settled form through the school orders issued by the princes after the middle of the sixteenth century, and in this Würtemberg set the model for other German states. In the same principality in which Duke Ulrich (1546) had ordered the abolishment of German schools that existed side by side with Latin schools in small country towns, because they drew scholars from the Latin schools, and also because Latin pupils would write Latin with German script and read with German accent, his successor, Duke Christopher, in his school regulations of 1559, gave to the German schools a position of self-dependent members of the State school system, independ ent of secondary or higher institutions. These German schools were to be consolidated in the larger settlements of his principality and placed in care of sacristans, and the children of the working people were to be instructed in German reading and writing, in religion and church hymns. The consistory was told to employ intelligent persons for these schools and sacristies, persons who had proved their fitness by passing an examination. Arithmetic is not mentioned as a branch of study, but the candidates for a teacher's position were examined in it. Also the method of teaching is prescribed; the course of study is divided into three grades, and the "community of pupils into three groups." Attention was to be paid to exact pronunciation of words, etc. The schools were inspected by church officials, first by the local pastor, then by special superintendents, and lastly by members of the state consistory. For lessons in the catechism the duty of attending was made obligatory; the parents were punished for absence of their chil dreu from "catechism school." This State school order (which had the force of law) was imitated in Brunswick in 1569, and in the electorate of Saxony in 1580.

As their name indicates, these schools were on a level with the purely German schools already existing during the Middle Ages, especially r the cities. They assumed, however, a special character since religious instruction in them appeared the principal object. It must also be borne in mind that they had been established by authority of the state. while the former German schools had been the result of municipal or private initiative to meet economic needs. Thus, in the domain of the

common school, we see a separation take place between the state or church school and the free burgher school of the Middle Ages. The actual conditions, of course, did not always correspond with the wellintended attempts of the authorities. Especially in the villages schools did not often exist, and their maintenance was precarious. In Würtemberg, for instance, the schoolmasters had to be admonished (in 1588) to establish, if possible, summer schools, and for a long time the classification of teachers into "full term" and "winter" schoolmasters was kept up. In other church and school regulations of that period, as in the Pommeranian school order of 1563 and in the Brandenburg consis torial order of 1573, village schools are not mentioned at all.

7. Private schools. In contradistinction to these new "people's schools," the German schools that had existed in earlier times flourished to the same, or perhaps to a larger extent, and this must be remembered in trying to obtain a complete view of the school system of that time. The desire for the elementary arts of reading and writing had become more general. The laboring class and the trades had not yet declined; city life was still rich and manifold. The church reformation had very greatly increased the participation of the people in general affairs, and the political and religious battles fought during the greater part of the century kept the people's energy in public affairs alive. In the "Mittheilungen der Gesellschaft für deutsche Erziehungs und Schulgeschichte" (1891, No. 1) an interesting document will be found giving information of this private city school system of the sixteenth century. According to this source there existed in Munich, in 1560, nineteen schools kept by German schoolmasters, besides three Latin schools. These men taught a shorter or longer period of years, but one, who was at the same time teacher of Latin and of German, had held his position forty-six years. Most of these men stayed at the same city and school, some with brief interruptions caused by a sojourn in other places. Some of them had been at the university; one had even obtained the baccalaureate degree, but most of them had never studied Latin. It is stated that one had "learned his trade" from a clerk in Landsberg, another from his father, who had also been a schoolmaster in Munich for twenty years; a third "had learned from Haus Reitter, at this place, to read, to write, and to reckon." Such a master had between 20 and 80, sometimes as many as 120 pupils, boys and girls. One of the masters seemed to have been more aristocratic than the others, for he had many children of the nobility, and took for his instruction double the customary fees. Most of these private masters asked 10 to 15 kreuzer (40 to 60 cents) tuition from each pupil for a term of three months. For teaching to write the fee was 15 pence, otherwise, i. e., if writing was omitted, 12 pence. Those who learned to "reckon with figures" generally paid 50 pence. These private teachers also included religious instruction in their course. The document from which these items are gleaned is a report of a visit of inspection through the private schools of the city,

undertaken to sound the masters' true Catholic faith. The masters made their pupils pray and sing, and prepared them, if the parents desired it, for confession and communion. Several of them had been asked by their patrons, that is, by "common artisans and tradespeople," to teach their children to sing psalms and hymns, according to the Protestant custom.

It is not astonishing that under such flourishing conditions in some cities the German schoolmasters, following the tendencies of the time, should form a special "guild" with "guild box," officers, and solemn ritual. The name "hedge schools" (Winkelschulen), schools without license, which had formerly been applied to all private schools as against institutions established by the state or the church, was now given only to schools the masters of which failed to join the guild, and these were designated as trade bunglers, called "Bönhasen," "Kalmäuser," etc., and persecuted in petty ways. Such guilds are mentioned in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, for instance, in Lübeck, Frankfort on the Main, and Nuremberg. In the latter city the guild of the masters of writing and reckoning still existed in 1808, the date of the incorporation of this free city into the Kingdom of Bavaria. In Hamburg the reformer Bugenhagen had settled, in the church order of 1529, that no "hedge schools" should be allowed, as they would be a disadvantage to the newly established high school at St. Johannis. They could not be so easily abolished, however. About 1550, again, complaints were raised about them, and the city authorities tried to remedy the evil by taking the establishment of smaller or lower schools in their own hands; for the express purpose of abolishing the "disorderly German hedge schools" public sacristan schools for children were to be established in every parish of the city. Some years later all the principals of schools were placed under the inspection of certain official persons. This is an example of how a city administration tried to prune that flourishing branch of the school system, and to regulate its growth. Generally speaking, the church and state school system was still too weak and inadequate to check successfully the growth of private schools. For that very reason the existence of the latter was justified; they did not merit the abuse with which State school officials tried to injure them.

(8) Catholic public schools.-In Catholic countries, the Jesuits who, as was stated before, were engaged in maintaining secondary schools, generally objected to people's or elementary schools. The tendency of the order was directed toward the scientific battle with the educated men of the Protestant world, therefore they could not devote themselves with the same zeal to lower schools. The constitution, issued by Loyola, excused this with the plea of want of a sufficient number of teachers for reading and writing schools. (Note C to IV, page 12.) Nevertheless, in the Catholic churches catechism schools were established, also. The ecumenical council of Trent recommended them,

and the Jesuit Canisius published a catechism which was much used. In Bavaria Duke Albrecht V framed school regulations which placed schoolmasters under supervision, and prescribing instruction in the Catholic creed and in reading and writing. At another occasion he admonished the clergy of his duchy to establish German schools. Hence to a certain degree, the Protestant movement in behalf of lower schools was imitated by a similar move on Catholic territory.

(b) THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. (1) National and new education : Ratichius and Comenius and the classical schools.-The movements which the Reformation had produced continued in Germany until the end of the sixteenth century. It was not until the beginning of the seventeenth century that German civilization entered upon new ways. National aspirations came to the surface at that time. The educated commenced to perceive something alien in the humanism in schools and universities, and attempts were made to establish a purely German education. As an indication of this desire the formation of the "Fruitbearing Society" in Weimar (in 1617) may be mentioned. Its object was the cultivation of the German language. Nobles and citizens worked together to this end; the nobles, after having been almost strangers to national life for a long time, came again in contact with public life during the sixteenth century, by joining their forces with the increasing power of the princely sovereigns, while the society of denizens of the cities still enjoyed the fruit of its great political power gained during the previous centuries.

Another change was caused by modern science which in that period experienced a great impetus in all the nations of the South and Westin Italy, France, Holland, and England. In these countries, humanism, although itself of mere literary tendency, led to a new rise of science. Because abandoning the culture of the Middle Ages, humanism liberated at the same time scientific thought which had lain in the bondage of Aristotle and religious belief. The battle against scholasticism fought by the humanists in the interest of classical languages and literature, at the same time delivered science from the oppressive authority with which Aristotle had burdened it. A number of men, for the most part living in the time before and after 1600, introduced a new science. Copernicus and Kepler created a new astronomy, Galileo a new physics; in Descartes was found the first philosopher of the new science, in Bacon its great methodician.

Germany did not keep pace with this progress, although it gave the first two names to this list of learned men. The German nation remained behind others in science, and soon also in regard to national wealth. At the German universities, after the Reformation, Aristotle continued to reign supreme. The reformers, it is true, had banished his scholastic commentaries from their instruction, but the contents of the philosopher's own books remained the only and unassailable basis of all instruction in science. When in 1569, Peter Ramus,

who saw his life's task in combating the doctrines of Aristotle, came to Heidelberg, and the ducal government wanted to employ him as lecturer on ethics, the faculty refused to accept him, "because his manner of teaching would not agree with that of Aristotle, whose philosophy was acknowledged to be the best in Germany and in all of Europe. That Greek philosopher remained the undisputed authority in university instruction until the end of the seventeenth century. Modern science passed over Germany, and the German people have only recovered from this neglect during the current century. Nevertheless, influences arising from this evolution could not be entirely ignored. It is a noticeable fact, that of the two greatest pedagogical reformers of the seventeenth century, Ratichius and Comenius, the latter received his strongest impetus from Roger Bacon. In connection with the tendency toward nationalizing culture (Germanizing it, as it were), the doctrine of independent science caused some noteworthy changes in the advanced education of Germany which, however, did not outlast the frightful ravages of the thirty years' war. The period from 1600 to 1648 deserves to be characterized briefly.

The new ideas found expression in the reform plans of Ratichius (1571-1635), and in the works of Comenius (1592-1671), and were advocated by a few of their disciples. In the field of higher education they intended to lead youth quickly to science and a knowledge of things themselves. Humanism; it seemed to them, gave only a knowl edge of words, books, and opinions, and when it did lead to knowledge of realities it dragged the student on such a roundabout road that he hardly reached the end. Therefore they offered new methods and new books for the study of languages by means of which the learning of classical languages (as yet the vehicles of all knowledge) could at least be shortened. "The schools," says Comenius, "do not show the things themselves as they really are, but teach what one or another, or a third party or a tenth, thinks and writes, so that at last the perfection of knowledge consists in knowing different opinions of many men about many things." (Didact. magna, XVIII, page 23.) He himself tried to compile in several of his Latin books words and expressions and group them so completely and conveniently that they might furnish "in a short time with little trouble an easy, agreeable, and safe transition to the authors who treat about things themselves." (Janua reserata, praef. sec. 11.) The humanists saw clearly what turn things were tak ing. They complained that the reformers would take out of the hands of youth those authors who had been teachers of culture and oratory, and intended them to dispute philosophical and theological questions, just as in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The representatives of the old school had complained about the young scholastics who, full of dialectic fancies, had thrown aside the classics.

However, at the time, a complete defeat of humanism was not accomplished. The ideas of the reformers found occasional admissions in