commentaries. The text books for these sciences, prepared by Melanchthon himself, were introduced everywhere into the Protestant schools, and retained their hold for more than a century.' The Latin which had to be taught was, of course, classical Latin. For elementary language instruction of scholars who came to the university without adequate linguistic preparation a "pædagogium" was established in the university, as it had already been done in other places at the close of the Middle Ages to meet pressing needs. In this measure lay the germ of separation between lower and higher instruction in liberal arts. In the general course of study the philosophie course did not differ materially from the old. It was divided into the customary grades of which the first ended with the baccalaureate examination, the second with the examination for the degree of master of arts. Other universities which joined the Reformation made similar changes. The establishment of a "pædagogium" is seen in many of them. In Tübingen, from 1557, this institution had four grades and led to the baccalaureate degree. A "stipendiate" course of study in force at Marburg (dated 1560) prescribed that scholars of average intellect, after having passed through the philosophical course, in which also some theological lectures were given, might enter church and school service, and only the more intellectually gifted were allowed to enter one of the upper faculties. This shows that no uniform course of study for all professions was prescribed, no more than was done in the Middle Ages.

(4) The new classical high schools.-The "particular" schools, described in a foregoing paragraph, prospered during this period. The humanists of the first part of the century were obliged as a makeshift to teach in these preparatory schools. Of course they infused these schools with their own spirit. But soon men were found who made it their life task to conduct such institutions, both in a humanistic and a Protestant sense, and who were sincere and zealous in fulfilling this duty. Some of these men have become famous in the history of education, (see Raumer's Geschichte der Paedagogik, I, page 213); for instance, Trotzendorf of Goldberg in Silesia, Neander of Ilfeld on the Hartz mountains, Sturm of Strassburg, and Wolf of Augsburg. The cities and princes gained over to Protestantism showed a lively interest in preparing a firm foothold for the new scientific and religious system in their schools. From all this resulted a raising of the course of study of the old particular schools; they were also brought into closer connection with the universities. The rectors, or principals, set themselves the task to prepare their pupils for the university, releasing them in the age of between 16 and 18, aiming at their finishing, if not the whole, possibly a large part of the philosophical course. Thus the plan of our modern school organization was laid in which the "gymnasium," or classical high school, prepares its graduates for higher professional study. The classical school thus assisted the university in its endeavors to

abandon its preparatory departments, which, however, did not exclude vigorous remonstrance and claims upon ancient privileges when the new schools extended their instruction far into the course of the faculty of arts. Thus the university of Basel complained about Thomas Platter, who had reorganized the cathedral school, that he taught the best classical authors and also dialectics in his course, studies which by rights were recognized to be university studies.

As has been mentioned, it was Luther who addressed himself to the cities soon after the beginning of the Reformation (1524). Following this vigorous incitation, new establishments took place in Magdeburg in 1524, Eisleben in 1525, Nuremberg in 1526 and other cities. In the North the reformer Bugenhagen worked to induce the cities to reform their secondary school system, and to give these schools statutes and regulations. This was done in Brunswick, Hamburg, and Lübeck. Other cities, like Minden, Göttingen, Soest, Bremen, and Osnabrück, accepted the draft of his regulations. Entire states, such as Denmark, Sleswick-Holstein, and the Duchy of Wolffenbüttel, reformed their school system with his aid. For the cities of the Electorate of Saxony a new order was prepared by Melanchthon, in 1528, in his report as inspector-general of schools. Of the later establishment the school at Strassburg became specially known and influential through the work of its rector, Johannes Sturm (after 1538). This institution was regarded as a model, and had many foreigners among its pupils. The course of study and the school books of Sturm remained the general standard for a long time.

With the beginning of the fourth decade commences the period of princely (or State) regulation of classical schools, and important features were developed. Necessity proved that the State had to take care of this education (the State having assumed the Pope's authority in Protestant countries) to secure preparation for ecclesiastical and secular government service in the different principalities of the Empire. The schools of the cities supplied only the limited city territory in which they had been established. They were classical and burgher schools at the same time, and could not always extend their courses far enough to suit the State. Duke Moritz of Saxony therefore, in 1543, introduced a decisive innovation by establishing public or princely schools in three cities of his dominion-State schools in fact-namely, at Pforta, Meissen, and Grimma. Following this model, in the second part of the sixteenth century similar institutions were established everywhere in Protestant States. The new schools were reserved for the children of native citizens, and had the object to prepare them for the university of their own State, at public expense, in boarding establishments. Their graduates were also supported by public means in the university, and were obliged to serve their State later on in high official capacity. The money for these purposes was obtained from church property sequestered in consequence of the church reformation. These

schools did not give elementary instruction, but required for admission some knowledge of Latin; they were therefore purely classical institutions for secondary and higher education. In the upper grades of their course the three ancient languages, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, were taught; but some of these schools restricted their course to Latin and Greek. To such a school the name "gymnasium" was given. In contradistinction to these were "city," "council," or simple "Latin schools," with a briefer course. The princes' (Fürstenschulen) or State schools (as we understand the term) having been established mostly at the expense of the property of ancient monasteries, were often colloquially called monastery (Kloster) schools-thus, for instance, in Würtemberg, where they were founded through the "church and school order of 1559," issued by the State.

The type of the Protestant classical school, created by the Reformation, remained authoritative for the next three centuries up to the eighteenth century. Classical education, being the center of gravity of the entire course, had a double purpose-to give the scholar ability to express himself readily in verse and prose, and to give him a certain amount of useful knowledge. This Melanchthon stated with precision to his students: "I always endeavor to introduce you to such authors as will increase your comprehension of things while they contribute toward enlarging your language. These two parts belong together, and have sworn friendship, as Horace says, so that one stands and is supported by the other, because no one can speak well if he does not understand what he wishes to say, and again, knowledge is lame without the light of speech." (Corpus Reformatorum, XI, page 112.) This epoch derived from the ancient authors increased knowledge of the life of men of their times, yea, even its general science. Homer was celebrated as a good preparatory school for the future official of a community, showing in the Iliad the arts of warfare, and in the Odyssey those of peace. Thucydides seemed to represent German home affairs; from the "Metamorphoses" of Ovid, besides moral truths, various bits of knowledge of geography, astronomy, natural history, etc., were taken.

Humanism, leaning toward literature, in contradiction to scholasticism which was based on scientific knowledge, was introduced into the German schools for this reason, and remained there during the following centuries. One may be disposed to include the present century, to regard the entire history of the secondary school system in Germany from the sixteenth century to the present time, as one period, and term it the period of "modern humanism," thus distinguishing it from the two earlier periods, that of "humanism of the middle ages," and that of "scholasticism." All the influences that were exerted upon the schools during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were foreign influences, but they were incapable of changing their character. Whether humanism, after experiencing a splendid renewal at the ED 98-3

beginning of the nineteenth century, and maintaining itself up to the present day, is weakening and losing its hold upon the present generation, or whether it will in the near future arise from the present depression and take a new lease of life, is a question concerning which opinions differ widely.

In this period the form of speech was fully as important as the contents. But also in this point it was thought best to borrow forms from foreign nations. This is the period of Latin poems and orations for all events in public life, of Latin inscriptions on the houses of the living as well as on the tombstones of the dead, and of Latin phrases and words in the German language.

(5) The schools of the Jesuits.-In those territories of the Empire which remained Catholic, the entire secondary and higher school system passed into the hands of the Order of the Jesuits during the middle of the sixteenth century. Established for the purpose of preventing a further falling off of members of the old church, or, if possible, of regaining parts of what was lost, the new order sought to counteract Protestant education by equally good Catholic education. It not only provided for a better education of the clergy, but also offered instruc tion in its school gratuitously to every one who would make use of it. Children of citizens, as well as of nobles and princes, were admitted. The order embraced in a large circle, from the Rhine through south Germany to Poland and Eastern Prussia, the territory of Protestantism, entering everywhere the old gymnasia and universities, or establishing new gymnasia and "colleges." The latter in many cases included gymnasial and university studies. The theological and philosophical faculties of the order soon obtained from the Pope the privilege of granting academic degrees as the old universities did. The course of study was essentially the same as that in Protestant schools, i. e., a humanistic course was followed by a three years' study of philosophy according to the Aristotelian compendium; then followed the four years' theological course. The study of medicine and law was not entertained by the order. Secondary and higher education in Germany therefore, in spite of the schism, could be considered to a certain degree as a unit. In the Protestant North as well as in the Catholic South, humanism had become the most important part of education. The Catholic church of the sixteenth century had adopted the new education of the epoch as completely as its predecessor had adopted scholasticism in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The ecclesiasticpolitical purpose, however, of the Jesuits was, that science and educa tion remain under strict church control in the schools. For this reason the order of studies of the Society of Jesus (Ratio studiorum, reg. comm. omn. prof. sup. fac. 6) was ordered which said: which contain no danger for creed and faith nobody shall introduce new questions on any important topic, nor an opinion, without sufficient authority or without permission of the superiors; nor shall any one teach anything against the doctrines of the church fathers and the

"Also in things

commonly accepted system of school doctrines; but everybody shall follow the approved teachers and the doctrines accepted and taught in Catholic academies."

In this way the inner development of this school system was in effect made impossible. While the Protestant schools were open to the influences of the varying spirit of the times during the following centuries, the higher Catholic institutions remained unchanged upon the old basis. Not until the second half of the eighteenth century did new currents of thought in these schools begin to exert themselves, which in turn aided in abolishing the order of the Jesuits (1773).

(6) Protestant public elementary schools.-The Reformation created something new in the public-school system as it existed at the close of the middle ages. At the beginning of the struggle, it is true, the attention of the reformers was directed above all toward higher schools. They depended upon them especially to prepare the weapons for the impending struggle. Therefore Luther, in a pamphlet dated 1524, blamed those who thought unnecessary the knowledge of languages, deeming it sufficient to teach the Bible and the word of God in German. This pamphlet, as has been mentioned before, is a sincere appeal to take care of the further development of secondary or preparatory schools, both princely or state, and municipal or city schools.

A simpler school education for "the common people," he thought, might be sufficiently supplied if the boys attended school one or two hours a day; the girls, one hour. From these elementary pupils the best qualified should be selected for teaching, preaching, and other ecclesiastical functions and to that end receive further instruction. In a similar way Bugenhagen planned the different stages of school education. According to the "school order" of Brunswick, dated 1528, those entirely without talent should attend the Latin school only till their twelfth year of age, others should attend till they were 16 years old, to prepare for "practical professions;" lastly, selected scholars should enter upon higher studies (gelehrte Studien). He allowed purely German schools to exist side by side with Latin schools. The Saxon "school order," framed by Melanchthon in 1528, expressed the same plan. It divided the pupils into three "groups" (Haufen). Only the most talented and skillful should be admitted to the highest (third) step. It provided for these schools that German need not be taught separately, which evidently meant the abolishment of the special German classes arranged as parallel classes in the Latin schools. Hence, it is plainly seen that elementary instruction at that time appears in close connection with secondary and higher studies.

But soon the establishment of an independent lower public school system became necessary in consequence of the Reformation. Laymen in the new church were to be conducted to the very source of faith-the Holy Scriptures. In the German Bible Luther had given to the common people the fundamental book of their religion in the native language. It was a self-evident presupposition that the people should