Schulordnungen, II, p. 323.) The closing Middle Ages exhibited a fierce competition on the field of public education. The "scholasticus" fought for his prerogatives, and still more for his revenues, against all new schools not established by the church, and the Latin schools, both church and secular, against the German schools; and again the German schools with their professional masters and privileged by the city council against others not belonging to the schoolmasters' guild.

In Hamburg German schools existed from the beginning of the fifteenth century; it is known that the authorities employed suitable persons to keep German schools of reading and writing. Later, differences arose between the council and the clergy of the city over this point. These difficulties were settled temporarily with a signal victory of the clergy. The city authorities were not allowed to establish more than one German school, the location of which, moreover, was to be designated by the clergy. The number of pupils was not to exceed forty; the city council appointed the schoolmaster, but the "scholasticus" paid his salary and supervised his work. One of the causes of the dispute, and perhaps the most important, arose from the provision that the "scholasticus" should receive annually as much of the tuition fees as he would receive from a similar number of pupils in the older Latin schools, that is, the cathedral and the city school.

But the flood, here as well as in the other cities, could not be checked. At the close of the Middle Ages, in 1522, the Hamburg "scholasticus" of that time complained that "almost daily new schools were opened by old women and other persons."

The number of distinct forms of schools which the Middle Ages devel oped is herewith concluded. Regular instruction did not penetrate into the villages at the close of this period, and a people's or common school education is nowhere to be found in the Middle Ages. As has been shown by examples, the idea was not uncommon that it would be laudable and becoming to every person to obtain useful knowledge at school; but the further idea to institute a general compulsion for that purpose was very remote. Only in modern history does this idea appear, first in the church, then in the state. If this be regarded a fault of the Middle Ages, it is mitigated by the fact that in earlier periods absolutely nothing had been done for public school education, and nothing ever develops in this direction unless it results from needs urgently and acutely felt.

III. FROM 1500 TO 1800.

HUMANISM IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. ESTABLISHMENT OF A PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM-THE BEGINNING OF THE REALSCHULE (SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE REALITIES OR MODERN HIGH SCHOOLS). (a) THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. (1) Humanism and its effect.-Toward the end of the Middle Ages there came a period for the classical schools in which men began to tire of the once highly prized scholastics,

and not to regard disputations in the universities as the highest proofs of human intelligence, but as idle jingling of words. Intelligent men looked for a new education. It was found in the occupation with clas sic antiquity, which just then awoke to new life. The scholastic method had founded its instruction on ancient authors, especially on Aristotle. But the new education gave the preference to other authors. It turned from Aristotle to the classic poets, who had been abandoned by the scholastics; also to ancient orators and historians. Though Latin had been the language of scholastic science, the language which was now to be learned was the pure Latin, written by the Romans of antiquity. Its study was commenced on account of itself, on account of its beauty and characteristic expressions. Soon Greek and Hebrew, as new subjects of study, were added. Humanism it was that took possession of emotions. It represented the idea of a more human and more natural education than that of former times. It was a member of the whole mental renovation of antiquity known by the name of "Renaissance." The change that occurred in the twelfth century from mere literary education of the earlier Middle Ages to the philosophic-scientific or scholastic education was now reversed. Scholars again began to esteem literature in its narrowest sense; i. e., those authors who treated upon subjects of human life or history in a rich variety and in beautiful forms. They found more pleasure in them than in scientific formulation and presentation. One might be induced to suppose that this shifting from science to literature, and vice versa, would repeat itself of necessity in the history of education after certain intervals. What men are looking for in all education is a definite view of the world and life (Welt- und Lebensanschauung) which comprehends the known phenomena in nature and history, as well as in the life of the individual. It seems that men find this view of the totality, at times, in the literature of a foreign nation, or in their own, where it is offered dogmatically, derived from the subjective assurance of the author. At other times they reject this source as deceptive, and find objective truth in science and its attempts at explanation. Then, for a period of time, salvation is sought in science alone.

Humanism had its rise in Italy. From the fourteenth century efforts were made here to renew the ancient Roman culture at the place of its past life. The new inhabitants of the country began to feel themselves the successors of the ancient people. Boccaccio (1313-1375) worked for the study of the classics, collected manuscripts, made copies, and learned Greek himself. Petrarca (1304-1374) studied Cicero and Virgil at the university against the will of his father, instead of law; he celebrated the older Scipio Africanus in a Latin epic, and joined the party of Cola Rienzi, who intended to reestablish the Roman Repub lic. He hated the scholastics and mocked them mercilessly. Humanism, after having spread over Italy by these and other noted men, was brought to Germany in the fifteenth century. From 1450 the younger

generation among German scholars tried to obtain the "new education" in Italy, and to bring it to their own fatherland.

What France had been in the eleventh and twelfth centuries that Italy became in the fifteenth and at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Italy was then the aim of all who would take part in the newly awakened mental culture. The chief interest in Italy and Germany centered in the Latin language and literature. Besides Greek, which during the Middle Ages had been as good as forgotten in the countries north of the Alps, assumed rising importance. Knowledge of Greek, already resuscitated in Italy, was further extended by the dispersion of Greek scholars after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. Hebrew as a study was added later. In 1506 Reuchlin in Germany published the first grammar of this language. The purpose of the study of Hebrew was, above all, the ability to read the Old Testament in the original. The study of Greek had, as a matter of self-evi. dence, theological purposes. Quite in accordance with this, Erasmus of Rotterdam printed the New Testament for the first time in the Greek language.

Humanism, during the first two decades of the sixteenth century, caused a transformation of the German universities according to the new ideal of education. In Leipsic the university was reformed in 1519, during the reign of Duke George. In the preliminary discussions and transactions the masters of the faculty of arts complained that the humanists entered their course by giving lectures on classical poets and orators. Science had to treat, so they declared, with things, not with words. He who knew words was a "grammaticus," but that did not make him learned or a philosopher, and the university had expressly been founded to train philosophers. To know words belonged to boys (Paulsen, Gel. Unt. I, page 104). The contrast between the new and the old system could not be better defined from the standpoint of the former. The result of the transformation was that, instead of the old, barbarous translations of Aristotle, others, more elegant ones, were used. From the scholastic commentaries only a few were selected, edited by older scholars. Lectures on Cicero, Quintilian, and Virgil were admitted, and Greek was introduced as a study of the course. The university of Wittenberg had been established in 1502 under humanistic influence. From 1507 these teachers of the faculty of arts are mentioned as reading on Latin authors, like Virgil, Sallust, Suetonius, and others. Shortly after, Martin Luther began his work there as lecturer of philosophy and soon also of theology. He agreed with the humanists in the controversy against Aristotle and the old-established faculty of art, and took an active part in the attempt at university reforms. But his position was not quite the same as that of the bumanists. According to his opinion the Christian system of the Middle Ages had been corrupted by the study of Aristotle; and the scholastic philosophers and theologians with their commentaries, obscuring the

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Bible itself, had taken their wisdom exclusively from influence had to be broken, so that the doctrine of origina... might reappear in its purity, and hence for this purpose : after the new linguistic interpretation, and the church father tine were the correct sources. His opposition, therefore, aimed Lig i. e. against the theological faculties of the universities. In 1518 1ecturers were appointed in Wittenberg for Hebrew and Greek. For the latter study Philip Melanchthon was called from Tübingen. At the same time a humanistic reform was brought about in Erfurt, and the other universities followed the precedent set by the three middleGerman universities.

In like manner the new system gradually entered the so-called particular (secondary or preparatory) schools. As an example, the aforementioned schools of the imperial city of Nuremberg may be referred to. In 1485 the old management was modernized a little, according to the spirit of the time, by introducing some lessons on Latin classics. In 1496 a "poet" was employed by the city to satisfy the urgent desire for humanistic education. The same end was the aim in 1509 in another way, by granting an increase of salary for the two city schoolmasters, for which these men had to give a special literary instruction to a select class of students. In 1521, at last, a learned humanist, capable of teaching the three ancient languages, was appointed for the school of St. Sebaldus.

(2) The Reformation.-At the close of the second decade the humanistic revolution was replaced by another movement, going deeper and reaching further. It seized not only the scholars and the learned men of the time, but the whole people, and especially the middle and lower classes. This new movement was the church reformation. The clergy during the last centuries of the Middle Ages had developed by degrees a very exclusive aristocracy, which in all religious questions. claimed exclusive mediation, and which even prevented the laity from obtaining admission to God on high without ecclesiastical aid. The clergys' secular dominion with all its pretensions appeared ever more oppressive, and its weight was felt the more the more directly it came from a foreign power, the Pope in Rome. Luther gave the signal for the liberation from this oppression, and the consequence was, as is known, that the one-half of the nation made itself independent in church matters forever.

These events, naturally, had great influence upon the then existing school system, which was closely attached to the church. In the beginning of the movement the whole school system was threatened with dissolution, at least for the moment. To extremists and enthusiasts it seemed as though for right faith, science and higher education were altogether superfluous. This menacing danger Luther vigorously attempted to meet by issuing an open letter in pamphlet form (in 1524) entitled "To the members of councils in all the cities of Germany,

enjoining them to establish and maintain Christian schools." In this document he developed the outlines of a Protestant secondary school system to be established. This he could not conceive possible without the study of languages. For, as the reformatory movement, at least among the leaders, had started from a scientific dispute over the foundations of church doctrines, so the future existence of the new church was dependent upon the possession of scientific weapons in the battle for the right creed, and for this purpose knowledge of the three ancient languages was absolutely necessary. He said: "May this be said, that we can not preserve the gospel without the ancient languages. They are the sheath wherein is contained the knife of the spirit; they are the shrine that holds the jewel." Hence humanism united with the church reformation for a reestablishment of the school system, just as their representatives, Luther and Melanchthon, worked shoulder to shoulder. But while Luther saw in the knowledge of ancient languages scarcely more than a weapon for theological purposes, Melanchthon's influence produced the idea, peculiar to humanism, that occupation with the ancient languages and literature offered immediate educational benefit to the student.

Luther also formulated the plan for the Protestant school system, which was followed for more than three centuries. It should prepare for both ecclesiastical and secular government. The necessity of a suitable preparation for secular professions having grown by degrees during the Middle Ages side by side with the ecclesiastical purpose of the schools, the education of officials in city and state government, of councilors and princely rulers and officers, was now made equally important with that of the clergy. The secondary and higher system of education developed (at least in the larger States) in such a way that it supplemented and assisted the form of government which became the dominating one in Germany at the beginning of the new epoch, i. e., the monarchy of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, in which churchmen, lawyers, and the nobles were the three governing classes.

(3) Protestant Universities.-After the first great storms of the ecclesiastical commotion had abated, the establishment of a Protestant system of education was commenced in schools and universities. In 1553 the theological faculty of the university of Wittenberg obtained new statutes. The old scholastic theology was entirely abolished. The newly appointed four professors lectured on the Old and New Testaments, sometimes also on Augustine. Three years later a reformation of the whole university took place. The ten professors of the philosophical faculty were obliged to teach the three ancient languages, mathematics, dialectics, rhetoric, physics, and ethics. The old Aristotelian sciences taught by the faculty of arts were not abolished, but were henceforth treated with the use of a corrected edition of Aristotle, instead of the scholastic edition that had been obscured by many