among whom Alcuin was his special counselor in matters concerning instruction. With these men and his entire family he cultivated literary and scientific pursuits. His court school for boys stood under his personal supervision and loving care.

Upon the suggestion of Charles, the synod of Aix la Chapelle issued, in 789, the regulation that in every monastery and cathedral chapter there should be schools in which boys should learn the Psalms, the letters, vocal music, calculation of church holidays, and grammar, i. e., of Latin. In consequence of this measure the two kinds of schools were established all over his empire, and their number was increased considerably. Charles, furthermore, did not consider the education of the clergy closed (as his regulations concerning education show) when they had mastered ecclesiastical matters, but he demanded a union of literary knowledge with a complete understanding of the Holy Scriptures. To obtain the latter seemed not to be easy in his time, because it was generally believed that the words of the Bible contained profound secrets. It seemed to meet the good intentions of the King, when, for instance, one of his bishops, Leidrad of Lyons, could report to him that he had in his schools singers, copyists, and reading men, and among the latter such as had deeply penetrated into the sense of the Bible texts.

Among the numerous schools existing in Charlemagne's time, some distinguished themselves by a profound cultivation of the sciences; thus, for instance, the school in St. Martin's Monastery at Tours, of which Aleuin was abbé in his old age. Young clergymen came to these institutions, often sent by their superiors to complete their studies, and from here again teachers were sent to other schools.

During the reign of Charlemagne monastery and cathedral schools began to enlarge their sphere of action. In the monasteries instruction was made accessible also to princes and noble laymen, who were destined for governmental offices; but especially to the future secular priests. In the same way other future clergymen participated in the instruction of the cathedral schools side by side with the canonical scholars, especially recruits of the poorer country clergy. This tendency of reaching into every class of society for worthy pupils was strictly followed after Charlemagne's death, though it was temporarily checked during the period of reaction under Louis the Pious, who for a time insisted upon strict asceticism in the church. In connection with this, it may be mentioned that there were double schools at several abbeys and monasteries, thus, for instance, at the Cathedral of Rheims and in the Convent of St. Gall, near the Lake Constance.

Of the latter place we still possess a ground plan, showing two sepa rate school rooms; the "interior school" for future monks is within the inclosure of the convent, the "exterior school" outside.

Also the first establishment of schools for the common people is attributed to the great Frankish King. With the consistency so char

acteristic of him, Charles demanded of every inhabitant of his realm, as a sign of his belonging to the general church, knowledge of the Latin confession of faith and prayers. When it became evident that this aim could not be reached, the rule was modified so as to require of parents and guardians as a sacred duty to send their children and wards into the monasteries for the purpose of learning the tenets of the Christian religion. This is the beginning of compulsory school attendance and general education in civilized countries; knowledge being at that time, however, restricted to the most general items of religious observances. But to carry this out was not possible in Charlemagne's day, and during the next following centuries the church showed less and less inclination and capacity to carry the King's well meant order into effect. Only isolated cases are known of zealous bishops admonishing the priests of their diocese to instruct the children of the community in religion.

3. Celebrated schools during the Middle Ages.-The institutious of Charles remained unchanged in all essential conditions during the next centuries. Under his immediate successor, Louis the Pious, the higher clergy asked the King to establish public schools in at least three cities of the Kingdom. They evidently thought of such schools as the one in Tours. It is not known whether the King complied with the request, but even without state and court influence such schools came into exist. ence. We know that all through the early part of the Middle Ages ecclesiastical schools distinguished themselves by a profound cultivation of the sciences. Nearly every German country at that time could boast of one or several schools which attracted pupils from near and far by the fame of their instruction. In Hessia, soon after Charlemagne's death, the monastery school at Fulda, under the direction of Rabanus Maurus, a pupil of Alcuin, rapidly rose to high fame. During the eleventh century this was superseded by the monastery school of Hersfeld. In the country around the lake of Constance the school of Reichenau had a long period of fame from the ninth to the eleventh century, only surpassed by the school of St. Gall; of the former the name of Walafried Strabo, of the latter the names of Ekkehard and Notker remind us. During the eleventh century celebrated schools grew up along the Rhine, in Cologne, Mayence, Worms, and Speyer. In northern Germany, at different times during the Middle Ages, the schools at Corvey, Hildesheim, and Magdeburg became noted (in the latter city especially the cathedral school), also that of the monastery of Bergen (on the island of Rügen in the Baltic). In Bavaria the distinguished school of Freising, under Bishop Otto, rose to the greatest fame at a time when a new civilization began to wrestle with the old, while the school of Tegernsee-abbey, the cathedral school at Regensburg, and the school of St. Emmeram-abbey, in the same city, represented the old culture in its highest development during the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

4. Instruction.-The pupils of the monastery and the cathedral schools attended instruction from the seventh to the eighteenth year, hence in this point they set the example for the pupils of the so-called schools for the learned during the sixteenth or eighteenth century. The instruction offered in these early schools was very different from the uniformity in our modern institutions and exhibited great varieties. Partly following the more or less ascetic direction of the orders that supported them, and partly following the lead of special teachers, the extent of their courses of study ranged from the most necessary and limited knowledge of a clerical preparation to an all-embracing course of education so far as was possible at the time. The principal branches were theology and profane science, as they had been under Charlemagne's influence. The first of these brauches consisted exclusively of the study of the Holy Scriptures. The profane sciences were taught in the form of the seven arts, i. e., "artes liberales," a form in which antiquity also had comprehended its knowledge encyclopedically. The "trivium," grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics, contained the form-studies; the "quadrivium" contained arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music; they were considered the studies of real knowledge.

Grammar, i. e., Latin language and literature, not only claimed the most important part in the "trivium," but in the entire course of study. It seemed the end and aim of all instruction. Latin was the language of the church, of the Bible, and generally that of all education and erudition of those times. The object of instruction in Latin, therefore, was to enable the pupils to use this foreign language orally and in writing. From a brief preparatory grammatical course the student went quickly over to a method which enabled him to speak the language, during lessons as well as in the daily intercourse with teachers and schoolmates. The Psalms were learned by heart before the little boy could understand them; reading, however, was thus practiced early and an ample vocabulary was rapidly acquired. It was a Latin method which made the dead language all his own, a method which continues to be used to this day and which rests upon daily oral application of new words gained.

The means to obtain this desirable skill were grammatical instruction combined with the reading of the Roman classics, especially of the poets. Reading was at first not an aim, but a means of learning to speak Latin. "The exegesis which was employed in reading the authors was only grammatical-linguistic. Even in the best schools there was no question of transmitting a full and clear understanding of the authors read, but the only aim kept in view was to learn quickly from the poets the exterior form and facility in Latin expression," says Specht in his "History of Education in Germany" (p. 103).

But though in this way the authors were used only for types of expression, and though for educational purposes they remained often enough mere dead objects, their contents could not be entirely ignored.

Without such intention they exercised an influence upon the young readers. The students not only picked forbidden fruit from Ovid, but their minds were often captivated by serious thoughts, not at all in harmony with church tenets. This is obvious from the persistent opposition which the profane sciences, and especially the classical studies, suffered from ascetic church dignitaries. Christianity, true to its origin, had not yet lost the tendency of despising the world and its treasures, and monachism itself had taken its origin from the persistent obedience to this thought, so that the church had serious scruples from time to time as to whether it should be permitted to devote time and talent to the reading of heathenish authors. But it is a token of the tolerance and sense of moderation of that time that such scruples and tendencies never became paramount. A comparison was repeated by means of which St. Augustine had justified it that the Christian church imbibe the culture of antiquity (De doctrina Christiana I, 60). As the Israelites, so he said, took away with them at their departure from Egypt golden and silver vessels and rich garments taken from the inhabitants of the country "for better use," so the Christian ought to snatch away gold and silver from the heathen, that is, their knowledge and science, and make them useful in the service of divine truth. Hence, classical studies (of course always to the extent permitted by available sources and the aims in view) found faithful and affectionate cultivation in monasteries. Beside the time of Charlemagne that of the Ottos distinguished itself in this respect.

Greek was almost wholly unknown in Germany and of no importance for practice in schools. Under the names of the other liberal arts were often concealed matters that differed greatly from their original meaning. Rhetoric, for instance, was not, as in antiquity, the art of oral speech, but comprehended instruction in the composition of letters, documents, and other writings, chiefly legal. This was an art very importaut for life during that time, and exclusively exercised by the clergy. But for this business a knowledge of the law was needed; hence during the earlier centuries of the Middle Ages a certain acquaintance with codes of law and Roman sources of law was maintained in convents. Dialectics at this period was the art of logical thinking and clever dispute. It was the weapon of the church militant, but only toward the close of the Middle Ages did it become of special importance.

The quadrivium supplied some knowledge of real things, but an extensive pursuit of these branches was not frequent and was considered difficult. Arithmetic and astronomy gave the dates and furnished the skill necessary for the computation or calculation of the church festivals. Music, an art which claimed a large space in divine services, was treated theoretically to a degree. There was no geometry as we understand the term; it consisted of geographical, natural, scientific, and medical knowledge, variously mixed with bits of theological knowledge. We have written evidence of what toward the end of that period a

learned abbot imagined the course of study in ecclesiastical schools should be in complete execution. Wilhelm of Hirschau (abbot from 1069 to 1091), a student of the monastery school of St. Emmeram in Regensburg, was a promoter of strict monastery discipline, devoted, however, to the cultivation of ecclesiastical and profane sciences. He is said to have been well instructed in the arts of the quadrivium, and was a celebrated church dignitary. In a work concerning philosophic and astronomic instruction, he says: "The course, however, is that because all teaching is done by word of mouth (eloquentia), we are to be instructed in speaking first. This instruction is divided into three parts, to write and speak correctly, as prescribed by grammar; to prove what has to be proved, in conformity with dialectics, and to ornate the same, as taught by rhetoric. Thus fitted out, and provided with these arms, we must begin the study of philosophy, in which the order is, first, the quadrivium, and then the Holy Scriptures, arriving, through knowledge of that which is created, to the knowledge of the creator." (Specht, loc. cit., p. 385, rem. 3.) This is the system of ecclesiastical instruction at that time, not as it was really everywhere followed, but as an ideal formulated by a thinker.

5. Nobility and people.-The education outlined in the foregoing paragraphs was not only the only kind known at that time, but it was con fined essentially to that class of the German people for which it was intended-that is, for the clergy. The nobility, during that period only, comprising the highest dignitaries of the Empire, found in the management of public affairs and in the use of arms a life task which was considered quite equal in importance to that of the clergy, and for which the study of the liberal arts was not at all necessary. The noble youth learned to ride, to chase, and the use of arms, but seldom did he learn to read and write. The noble knight thought it pernicious to keep his son at his books instead of letting him exercise from earliest youth the arts of his class. Only at the court a more active part in acquiring book learning seemed at times desirable. The chief magistrate of the Empire, the "Kaiser" or King, needed to read written Latin and to understand it. Sometimes he and his court attendants showed a desire for intellectual education for its own sake. Then the sciences, i. e., the liberal arts, found a zealous cultivation at the court, and their acquisition extended in ever-widening circles among the highest nobles of the realm. Thus it happened during Charlemagne's reign and again during that of the Ottos.

The women of nobility played a peculiar and to some extent a prominent rôle in the civilization of that time. Those belonging to religious orders, the inmates of nunneries and choir houses, received an education similar to that of monks. It is known that the nun Roswitha, of Gandersheim, composed Latin comedies after the model of Terentius, and her example was not an isolated one. If women lived "in the world" they often showed more inclination and found more time