be owing to imperfect analysis, but it is certainly mainly due to imperfect knowledge of the chemical conditions requisite for fertility.'

"I have already referred to the conclusion that most chemists have arrived at in reference to the analysis of soils for practical applications, but I find I have omitted to notice a very remarkable case of a soil from the Island of Cuba, containing ninety per cent. of oxide of iron. The sample was analyzed by Prof. Hayes, of Boston, and was from a soil producing fine crops of tobacco. The result seemed so strange that I made inquiry of the doctor in reference to the truth of the published statement, which he confirmed. Now, if any chemist were asked to name an article containing 90 per cent. of oxide of iron, would he call it a soil? Would he not call it a very rich iron ore ?

"Phosphate of iron, as before stated, has been proven to be soluble in alkaline. silicates, which must exist in every soil in which grass or grain can grow. It has also been proven that oxides of iron, while undergoing certain changes in the soil, promote the formation of ammonia and carbonic acid. This will probably account for the fact of the growth of fine tobacco in a soil containing 90 per cent. of iron, previously mentioned.

"Prof. W. R. Johnson's analysis of coal indicates that it is nearly, if not altogether, useless as a manure. The very few cases in which it has been of any service whatever were on stiff clays, by tendency to make it more porous. This purpose, I am sure, can be effected as well or better with materials on the farm or vicinity, at much less cost.

"Jersey Irish Potatoes.-An article in The Country Gentleman, January, 1859, throws some light on the cause of their good quality, after showing, by statistics, that the quantity in four counties had been nearly quadrupled between 1840 and 1850. The writer says: I suppose that the preference given to Jersey potatoes is owing to the fact that green sand is almost the only manure used in raising them. It is the common opinion in Jersey that potatoes so raised are much better than those from heating manures.'"

ON GRASS LANDS,

THEIR VARIOUS KINDS, AND THE BEST MEANS OF PERMANENTLY IMPROVING THEM.

BY ROBERT SMITH, EMMETT'S GRANGE, SOUTH MOLTON, DEVON.

[From the Bath and West of England Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture]

It is now very generally admitted that it is to the Grass Lands of England, in their several varieties, we must hereafter look for our main supplies of animal food during the summer months. The proper treatment of such lands is therefore a matter of great national concern, and the question derives additional interest from the fact that, while arable farming may be said to have a copious literature of its own, comparatively little has hitherto been written on the subject discussed in these pages.

By the general term Grass Lands we mean, not only rich grazing ground and marsh and meadow lands, but also such portions of the arable as in a due course of rotation are occupied by artificial grasses. We have therefore a large and comprehensive subject, and had not the botanical department of it been already dealt with in former volumes of this Journal, we should have thought it necessary to introduce our practical remarks by a cursory glance at the natural history of the grasses. For present purposes, however, it will be sufficient to observe that the grasses, popularly so termed, clothe the surface of every zone, and though varying in character and substance according to the soil and climate in which they are found, they may be represented as indigenous to the whole earth. Thus the best grasses are found in the more even climates, where there is the least cold in winter and no excess of heat in summer, whilst others vary according to the influence of local circumstances, each class having its peculiar affinities and functions in the vegetable kingdom. It hence follows that, while no department of agriculture is generally thought more simple and easy of execution than the culture and improvement of the grasses, yet, from their great variety and the special adaptation of particular genera to particular kinds of soil, considerable judgment is necessary in order to effect permanent improvements.

Until recently very many occupiers endeavored to increase their arable lands by "getting leave" to break up some old field or fields then said to have "a natural

complaint about them, only to be cured by the plough;" but only in rare instances were they found converting arable lands to permanent pasture. There is now a more decided course in favor of grass, and the question, "How to increase our grass land," arises at every turn. And yet a large proportion of the grass lands of England still remain unimproved, and in many instances neglected. This is particularly the case in districts where, in comparison with the arable land in occupation, the extent of grass lands is disproportionate and excessive. An important illustration of this point is furnished by the following extract from a statement as to the condition and appropriation of the land in the United Kingdom, delivered to a Committee of the House of Commons by Mr. Couling, even as far back as the year 1827:

Extract from Mr. Couling's Report, 1827.*

It must, however, be observed that since the date of the foregoing return much additional land has been inclosed. Between the years 1827 and 1844 at least three hundred Inclosure Bills were passed by the Legislature; and from the Fourteenth Report of the Inclosure Commissioners, made to Parliament in 1859, we learn that since the passing of the General Inclosure Act in 1835, there have been eight hundred and nine applications for inclosures, 1697 exchanges, and one hundred and sixty one partitions, etc., making a total of two thousand six hundred and sixty-seven. It is estimated that there are still fifteen million of acres of waste land capable of improvement, six million of which would make arable land, and the remainder improved pasture.

* To the same authority we are indebted for the following comparative statement as to the four Western Counties, forming the district proper of the Bath and West of England Society,

viz :

Under the general designation of Grass Lands is included land of every kind— from the richest grazing ground, marshes, meadows and uplands, down to the improved and unimproved wastes and moorlands. A preliminary glance at the cultivated grass lands may enable us the better to ascertain their relative condition and determine as to their future management. In doing so we first turn to lands of the best class.

GRAZING GROUND.-This is known as "The Old Grass Land," by which term it is properly designated. It bounds in the Midland Counties, in some parts of the Eastern and Northern Counties, as also in the Western Counties, and the marshy districts of the whole island. It is on these lands we must depend for our first supplies of animal food in the early summer months. But even these lands are frequently of two distinct sorts, viz: (1) the really strong Ox Land resting upon cool subsoils; and (2) the second-class lands resting upon porous subsoils, or placed within southern aspects; the latter are frequently used for mixed grazing, either for the second stage of fattening cattle, growing steers, dairy farming, or fattening early lambs-the choice being governed by the holding.

The Ox Land consists of that portion of the farm which has been under natural grass form time immemorial. Those plots are the most luxuriant which have the greatest depth of soil-the period of production varying according to aspect, and the character of the subsoil on which they rest. For instance, upon gravelly subsoils the grasses are exceedingly early in their spring shoot, and they retain their vigor until impeded by the increased warmth of the summer's sun; they then lie dormant for a while, but rally as the autumn advances, when they again become exceedingly valuable to succeed other pastures situated upon a different description of soil. Pastures resting upon a clay or cold subsoil vary materially in their period of productiveness; they are more backward in the spring, but progress with the warmth of the summer, and are thus "in season" during the hottest months. We rarely, if ever, find this class of land assisted by top-dressings of artificial or other manures; in fact, the great value usually placed upon them arises, firstly, from their natural productive powers, and, secondly, from their cheap maintenance, as regards both labor and manures.

The grasses upon the best rich MARSH LANDS are really indigenous productions, formed upon an accumulated mass of vegetable mould, and are of themselves sufficiently rich without the aid of manures; still they require to be kept in proper bounds by close feeding, so that every blade may be allowed to see the sun at least once a year. Where this is not attended to, an accumulation of rough grass takes place, and the herbage becomes changed in character and less nutritive in quality. The importance of assisting Nature, rather than marring her works, is thus most forcibly shown.

The SHEEP or MIDDLE CLASS LANDS, which are usually stocked with both sheep and cattle, are of two classes, arising from a difference of soil; indeed, it will be found that the herbage upon dry soils, as compared with that on moist soils, is more rapid in its growth, especially in the spring, though it does not "hold out”

equally long. These lands are both simply and cheaply managed; but no grassland pays better for attention than the early lands, as their produce comes to hand at a time when most required, after a long and tedious winter.

PASTURES which rest upon flat land, of moderate quality, upon cold bottoms, which are frequently undrained, or upon "worn out" fields, are much more backward; they are therefore used as SUMMERING pastures, and in most instances relieve the earlier fields of a part of their stock about Midsummer day, when the two best months are gone. The retention of these lands may be considered a useful arrangement upon a farm, but will be found to cause disappointment if estimated by their rent-paying qualities; for though their management is simple and uncostly, yet no improvement is going on. It is this class of grass-land that requires most outlay and prompt attention. Many of our marsh-land districts contained the best thick-bottomed sheep pastures, such as have at some former period been rescued from the sea, or are found within reach of the salt-water spray, upon which sheep are found to be exceedingly healthy-a fact indicating the importance of salt, both as a fertilizer for pasture-lands and a promoter of health in cattle and sheep.

MEADOW-GROUND varies with the soil, situation, and climate of the district wherein it is found. The character of the herbage also differs, as it is closely governed by the mode of treatment pursued. Even the aspect of a meadow has much to do with early productiveness and the quality of produce. This portion of the farm is usually under "the scythe," and, as the winter supply of fodder greatly depends on it, it receives a degree of attention seldom paid to other grasslands, but nevertheless necessary to the carrying on of certain fixed plans in the farm-yard. There is, however, such a thing as disproportionate attention or neglect, for in nearly every district we find the greater part of the perennial grasses to be the spontaneous yield of Nature, and it is a very important question in what way the generous productiveness of Nature may be most advantageously stimulated.

As the selection of meadow-lands is governed by the size and character of the farm, care should be taken that they are so placed as to be favorable to early growth; that they are conveniently situated for harvesting and manuring; and that they do not touch on the later lands-usually situated in the valleys, and along the lower slopes of the farm-which succeed the upland early meadows, and produce an abundance of hay, usually carried to the homestead: a convenient practice, and not costly, as this class of land rarely, if ever, gets any return in the shape of manure.

THE REAL MARSHES.-Some of these have been brought to a surprising pitch of excellence, by judicious outlays of capital, in draining, in improved outfalls, and in the judicious management of the surface; while others are yet lying as useless swamps for wild fowl, and continuous pests to the surrounding neighborhood.

MOORLANDS.-There are certain moorlands which are exceedingly useful during the summer months, for depasturing cattle and sheep from certain arable and