I

APPENDIX.

Upon CHANCE and CONTINGENCY.

HOLD it to be an intuitive propofition, That the Deity is the primary cause of all things; that with confummate wildom he formed the great plan of government, which he carries on by laws fuited to the different natures of animate and inanimate beings; and that these laws, produce a regular chain of caufes and effects in the moral as well as the material world, admitting no events but what are comprehended in the original plan (a). Hence it clearly follows, that chance is excluded out of this world, that nothing can happen by accident, and that no event is arbitrary or contingent. This is the doctrine of the effay quoted; and, in my apprehenfion, well founded. But I cannot fubfcribe to what follows, viz. "That we have an im

preffion of chance and contingency, which confequently must be delufive." I would not willingly admit any delufion in the nature of man, where it is not inade evident beyond contradiction; and I now fee clearly, that the impreffion we have of chance and contingency, is not delufive, but perfectly confiftent with the eftablished plan.

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The explanation of chance and contingency in the faid effay, fhall be given in the author's own words, as a proper text to reafon upon." In our ordinary train of thinking, it is certain that all events appear not to us as neceffary. A multitude of events feem to be un"der our power to caufe or to prevent; and we readily make a distinction betwixt events that are necessary, i. e. that must be; and events that are contingent, i. e. that may be, or may not be. This dif"tinction is void of truth: for all things that fall out "either in the material or moral world, are, as we "have seen, alike necessary, and alike the refult of fix"ed laws. Yet, whatever conviction a philofopher 66 may have of this, the diftinction betwixt things ne"ceffary and things contingent, poffeffes his common " train

(a) See Effys on Morality and Natural Religion, part 1 eay 3.

"train of thought, as much as it poffeffes the most illi66 terate. We act univerfally upon that diftin&tion: nay it is in truth the caufe of all the labour, care, and industry, of mankind. I illuftrate this doctrine by an example. Conftant experience hath taught us, "that death is a neceffary event. The human frame is not made to laft for ever in its prefent condition; and 66 no man thinks of more than a temporary exiftence upon this globe. But the particular time of our death appears a contingent event. However certain it be, "that the time and manner of the death of each indi"vidual is determined by a train of preceding caufes, "and is no lefs fixed than the hour of the fun's rifing or fetting; yet no person is affected by this doctrine. "In the care of prolonging life, we are directed by the fuppofed contingency of the time of death, which, to ་ a certain term of years, we confider as depending in a great measure on ourfelves, by caution against ac"cidents, due use of food, exercife, &c. Thefe means "are profecuted with the fame diligence as if there were in fact no neceffary train of caufes to fix the "period of life. In fhort, whoever attends to his own practical ideas, whoever reflects upon the meaning of the following words which occur in all languages, of things poffible, contingent, that are in our power to caufe or prevent; whoever, I fay, reflects upon these words, will clearly fee, that they fuggeft "certain perceptions or notions repugnant to the doc"trine above eftablished of univerfal neceffity."

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In order to fhow that there is no repugnance, I begin with defining chance and contingency. The former is applied to events that have happened; the latter to future events. When we fay a thing has happened by chance, we do not mean that chance was the caufe; for no perfon ever thought that chance is a thing that can act, and by acting produce events: we only mean, that we are ignorant of the caufe, and that, for aught we fee, it might have happened or not happened, or have happened differently. Aiming at a bird, I fhoot by chance a favourite spaniel: the meaning is not, that chance killed the dog, but that as to me the dog's death was accidental. With refpect to contingency, future

future events that are variable, and the caufe unknown, are faid to be contingent; changes of the weather, for example, whether it will be froft or thaw to-morrow, whether fair or foul. In a word, chance and contingency applied to events, mean not that fuch events happen without any cause, but only that we are ignorant of the cause.

It appers to me clear, that there is no fuch thing in human nature as a sense of contingincy; or, in other words, a fenfe that any thing happens without a cause: fuch a fenfe would be grofsly delufive. True it is indeed, that our fenfe of a cause is but cloudy and indiftinct with refpect to certain events. Events that happens regularly, fuch as fummer and winter, rifing and fetting of the fun, give us a diftinct impreffion of a caufe. The impreffion is lefs diftinct with respect to events lefs regular, fuch as alterations of the weather: and extremely indiftinct with respect to events that feldom happen, and that happen without any known caufe. But with respect to no event whatever does our sense of a caufe vanish altogether, and give place to a pofitive fenfe of contingency, that is, a fenfe of things happening without a caufe.

Chance and contingency thus explained, fuggeft not any perception or notion repugnant to the doctrine of univerfal neceffity; for my ignorance of a caufe, does not, even in my own apprehenfion, exclude a cause. Defcending to particulars, I take the example mentioned in the text, viz. the uncertainty of the time of my death. Knowing that my life depends in fome measure on myself, I use all means to preferve it, by proper food. exercife, and care to prevent accidents. Nor is there any delufion here. I am moved to use these means by the defire I have to live: these means accordingly prove effectual to carry on my prefent existence to the appointed period; and in that view are fo many links in the great chain of caufes and effects. A burning coal falling from the grate upon the floor, wakes me from a found fleep. I ftart up to extinguish the fire. The motive is irrefiftible: nor have I reafon to refift, were it in my power; for I confider the extinction of the fire

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by my hand to be one of the means chosen by Providence for prolonging my life to its defined period.

Were there a chain of caufes and effects established entirely independent on me, and were my life, in no measure under my own power, it would indeed be fruitless for me to act; and the abfurdity of knowingly acting in vain, would be a prevailing motive for remaining at reft. Upon that fuppofition, the ignavia ratio of Chryfippus, might take place; cui fi pareamus, nibil omnino agamus in vita*. But I act neceffarily when influenced by motives; and I have no reason to forbear, confidering that my actions, by producing their intended effects, contribute to carry on the univerfal chain.

HA

PROGRESS of MORALITY.`

AVING unfolded the principles of morality, the next step is to trace out its gradual progress from its infancy among favages, to its maturity among polished nations. The hiftory of opinions concerning the foundation of morality, falls not within my plan; and I am glad to be relieved from an article that is executed in perfection by more able hands (a).

An animal is brought forth with every one of its external member; and completes its growth, not by production of any new member, but by addition of matter to thofe originally formed. The fame holds with refpect to internal members; the fenfes, for example, inftincts, powers and faculties, principles and propenfities: thefe are coeval with the individual, and are gradually unfolded, fome early, fome late. The external fenfes, being neceffary for felf-prefervation, foon arrive at maturity. Some internal fenfes, of order for inftance, of propriety, of dignity, being of no ufe during infancy, are not only flow in their progrefs towards maturity, but require much culture. Among favages they are scarce perceptible.

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"The indolent principle; which if we were to follow, we fould do nothing in life."

(a) Dr. Cudworth and Dr. Smith.

The moral fenfe, in its progrefs, differs from those laft mentioned: it is frequently difcovered, even in childhood. It is however flow of growth, and feldom arrives at perfection without culture and experience.

The moral fenfe not only ripens gradually with the other internal fenfes mentioned, but from them acquires force and additional authority: a favage makes no difficulty to kill an enemy in cold blood: bloody fcenes are familiar to him, and his moral fenfe is not fufficiently vigorous to give him compunction. The action appears in a different light to a person who has more delicacy of feeling; and accordingly the moral fenfe has much more authority over those who have received a refined education, than over favages.

It is pleasant to trace the progrefs of morality in members of a polished nation. Objects of external sense make the first impreffions; and from them are derived a ftock of fimple ideas. Affection, accompanying ideas, is first directed to particular objects, fuch as my brother, my wife, my friend. The mind opening by degrees, takes in complex objects, fuch as my country, my religion, the government under which I live; and thefe alfo become objects of affection. Our connections multiply, and the moral fenfe gaining ftrength as the mind opens, regulates our duty to each of them. Objects of hatred multiply, as well as objects of affection, and give full fcope to diffocial paffions, the mot formidable antagonists that morality has to encounter. But nature hath provided a remedy: the perfon who indulges malice or revenge, is commonly the greateft fufferer by the indulgence: men become wife by experience, and have more peace and fatisfaction in foltering kindly affection: ftormy paffions are fubdued, or brought under rigid difcipline; and benevolence triumphs over felfishness. We refine upon the pleasure of fociety: we learn to fubmit our opinions: we affect to give preference to others; and readily fall in with whatever fweetens focial intercourfe; we carefully avoid caufes of' difcord; and overlooking trifling offences, we are fatished with moderate reparation, even for grofs injuries.

A nation