written in pure Spanish, and if an Arabic word is discovered, it is because the author did not find any Spanish expression for the same idea, or because, being of frequent use in the Korán, and conveying a religious idea, the writer did not consider himself sufficiently authorized to substitute for it a Spanish one; as, for instance, alhasana, good deed, azora, chapter of the Korán, zabour, the psalms, adonía, the world and its pleasures, alhixe, the pilgrimage to Mecca, &c. These words so adopted and added to the Spanish language were made in all instances to follow the inflexions of the Spanish grammar: almalac, angel, would form its plural almalaques; ataquí, a holy man, ataquies; the verb khalecar, derived from the Arabic khaleka, to create, would be conjugated in all the moods and tenses of the Spanish verbs. Another alteration introduced by them, and which we see used by the Spanish writers of the fifteenth century, is the following:-Whenever a verb of the species called by the Spaniards verbos posesivos or reflected verbs, occurs, the reciprocal pronoun by which it is determined, instead of being placed at the beginning or at the end of the word (as is the case now), is always inserted between the radical part of the verb and its grammatical termination; as, for instance, instead of lebantaranse or se lebantarán, they would say lebantarse-an; instead of os embarcareis, os recibireis, nos aguardaremos, se matarán, they would write embarcar-os-eis, recibir-os-eis, aguardar-nos-emos, ma

ter-se-an.

As to the letters employed to give the sounds of the Spanish alphabet, they are not always the same; by which we are led to conclude, that different systems of orthography must have been in use. However, there is one which, by its almost universal adoption, seems to have been the best, and the most fit to render the sounds of the Spanish letters. The character employed is somewhat like that now used in western Africa; the letters are neatly drawn, and surmounted by their vowel points, fatha answering to a in Spanish, kesra to i, and dhamma to o. E is expressed by an alef preceded by fatha, and u by a wau after dhamma. The jim of the Arabs answers to two sounds of the Spanish alphabet, namely, to ch as in chopo, and j as in oreja, only that, when meant to express the last of these two sounds, the letter is surmounted

by the sign called in Arabic teshdid, which is also employed whenever a double consonant occurs.

The sin and the zain answer to the Spanish z. The shin is invariably the s. The ssad, the dhad, the ta, and the dza, are never used, any more than the tha and the ain. The ghain gives the sound of the g before a or o, as in gallo, cockgorro, cap. No difference is observable between the kof and the kef; both are used to express the Spanish c before a, o, u, and the qu before e and i. The wau is used as a vowel sound, and then it answers to the u, or as a consonant sound, in which case it is employed to give the sound of the Spanish gu followed by a, as in guadana, scythe. The ia is equally employed both as a vowel and as a consonant. In the first instance it answers to the letter i, and in the second to the y. The he is used for the Spanish h whenever it is to be pronounced without aspiration; as in the words hombre, man, honesto, honest.

Of the orthographical signs used by the Arabs, two only are employed the first is the teshdid, which, as we have already had occasion to observe, is used whenever the repetition of a consonant letter occurs; as for instance, in the words carro, car, correspondencia, correspondence, in which only one r would be written, the other being supplied by the teshdid; the other sign is the hamza, and answers perfectly to the Spanish accento agudo, acute accent, when two vowels meet, of which one is to be pronounced long and the other short, as in the words paséo, promenade, saráo, feast, desvarío, error, &c.

Another peculiarity to be observed is, that whenever two consonants meet in the same syllable, whether in the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a word, (as for instance in provincia, province, sorpresa, surprise, padre,father,) the Moors, following a rule of their forgotten language, inserted between the two consonants a vowel similar to that of the syllable in which the meeting occurs, and wrote porobincia, sorperesa, padere, although by this insertion the pronunciation was not the least altered.

If we have taken so much pains to examine the origin, the nature, and the productions of this department of literature, until now completely overlooked, it is under the impression

that considerable advantage may be derived from it. It will, such is our opinion, throw great light on the history of those times; give us a clearer insight into the customs of the Arabs and their social life, a matter still of great doubt and uncertainty; enable us better to understand their legal system, which although based on the Korán, received in Spain, as in every other part of the Mussulman dominions, important modifications; and finally suggest many philological remarks respecting the formation and structure of the Spanish language, which, by its genius and grammatical construction, is perhaps more adequate than any in Europe to receive the multifarious and beautiful images of one, not unjustly, compared to the "fathomless ocean."

ARTICLE IV.

Austria and the Austrians. Two vols. London: Colburn, 1837.

It is generally understood that this book emanates from the pen of a gentleman whose travels in the countries which he describes were undertaken with a more serious and practical design than that of picturesque composition or sprightly tourwriting. These volumes, indeed, do not pretend to any higher merit than that of an accurate and lively picture of some parts of the Austrian dominions; but we have selected them on the present occasion, because we are anxious to put upon record our sense of the important services which we believe their author to have rendered to the governments of England and Austria by his extensive investigation of their mutual commercial interests, which have unquestionably contributed to the conclusion of the recent commercial treaty between the two states. "The position which the several nations under "the government of Austria occupy on the face of Europe, "their abundant natural resources, and the good disposition "of the people generally towards England, are such consi"derations as would render a mutual and far more extended

"bond of political and social union between the British and "Austrian empires of the most important advantage to both." Such, in the words of his own preface, was the view with which this journey was undertaken by the author; and we heartily congratulate all the parties to the recent negotiations between Austria and England on the results to which those negotiations have led-results more speedy, and, we hope to show, as satisfactory as the warmest friends of this political and social bond of union could hope for.

It is impossible not to have remarked the strong interest which has been excited in England within the last two years by everything relating to the present condition of the Austrian empire. The opening of steam-navigation on the Danube; the growing interest of English travellers with the rude but energetic inhabitants of Hungary; the symptoms of a more generous policy in the affairs of the empire and especially of Italy,-faintly shown at the commencement of the present reign, but which have already led to more solid results than were commonly anticipated; above all, the instinctive feeling of the British public that we are approaching a contest with Russia by steps as measured and certain as befits the coming trial of so great a cause, and that the interests of Austria are identified with those principles which England must at all hazards defend: these have been the immediate causes of the favour with which the recent publications relating to Austria have been received. Incomplete and absurd as most of these productions have been, they have served to indicate the existence of a very important, but very much neglected, field of inquiry. The navigation of the Danube and the character of Prince Metternich have continued to interest us, although the former had the misfortune to be described by Mr. Quin, and the latter to be panegyrized by Mrs. Trollope. The work before us is another contribution of the lighter sort, to satisfy this craving for information from Austria; and we see the title of a work of higher pretensions in the lists of books on the eve of publication, which we hope will in due time increase our store of knowledge; for the present aspect of affairs warrants us in the confident expectation, that no slackness or ignorance on our part, no needless mistrust on the part of Austria, will check the growth of the bond which

unites the interests, and connects the policy, of these two great empires.

We trust we may be pardoned, if at this time, when those political questions of the highest moment, which have been as yet only brooding on the horizon of Europe, appear to be stirred by the precursor of a tempest,―we trust we may be pardoned for looking back on the course which this journal has held from its commencement with honest satisfaction. The object which we have held in view has been to convince our countrymen, that whilst no scheme was too vast for Russia to plan, and none too wicked for her to execute, there was a moral strength in the policy and name of England sufficient to repress these perilous encroachments, sufficient to protect-probably at no cost of blood-the security and peace of the world. We proceeded to argue, that a power possessing such moral might was bound to use it for moral ends. At times, indeed, such has been the vacillating attitude of our rulers, that we have doubted whether the strength of the nation was not impaired by the supineness of those to whom the use of that strength was entrusted. But whether the intelligence of the day brought us fresh topics of alarm or of indignation-fresh combinations of Russian influence over European states to be exposed-or fresh evidence of her actual aggressions on our Eastern bulwarks-we have continued earnestly and confidently to point out the alliance of England and Austria as the true solution of the difficult position in which both empires have been placed by the open breach or by the underhand evasion of all the guarantees established, but not maintained, by the Treaty of Vienna.

It is to be hoped that something has been done by the English press to wipe away old prejudices, and to open new sources of information respecting the condition of Austria; but it becomes us to acknowledge that Austria herself has encouraged, by her demeanour to us and by her recent policy, a closer union than mere interest could effect. The English public applauds with no common sympathy the act which has reopened the gates of Italy to men whose exile, if we were selfish, we could hardly deplore, since it brought to our shores a band of high-hearted patriots whose merits and talents have shone with no secondary light in English society, and