10 gallons-per-minute. As of August 1980, about 500,000 gallons of water (including some recycling) had been processed and about 55,000 curies of radioactivity removed. The processed water contains concentration levels of less than 0.00001 microcuries-per-milliliter, except for tritium. The latter is not affected by the processing and remains at concentration of about 0.2 microcuries-per

milliliter.

The decontaminated water is being held in storage tanks at the site. The spent resins are dewatered and stored in steel liners, which are placed in massive concrete structures with concrete walls four feet thick and 15-ton concrete caps over each cell. The structures provide environmental protection and radiation shielding which allows personnel to work alongside and on top of the cells. (See the 1979 NRC Annual Report, pp. 22-24.) Alternatives for the final disposition of the processed water and of the liners were being evaluated at the close of the report period. The more highly contaminated water in the reactor containment building had not yet been processed at that time.

Decontamination of Atmosphere

Before workers could begin the job of cleaning up the containment building, maintaining instruments and equipment, and eventually removing the damaged fuel from the reactor core, the radioactive gas krypton-85 which had been released into the reactor building during the accident had to be removed. Although the gas was only thinly diffused throughout the building atmosphere (in a concentration of about one microcurie-per-milliliter), it nevertheless posed a danger to personnel who would have to work in the building for prolonged periods. In February 1980, two incidents occurred involving small inadvertent releases of krypton-85: one was associated with the leak of up to 1,000 gallons of primary coolant from the makeup system to the TMI-2 auxiliary building on February 11, and the other on the following day, when a small leak went undetected for about 17 hours. These releases represented a psychological health hazard calling for timely decontamination of the plant.

In March 1980, the NRC staff issued for public comment a draft environmental assessment of a

number of alternatives for the decontamination of the reactor building atmosphere. Approximately 800 responses were received from various Federal, State and local agencies and officials, as well as from nongovernmental organizations and private individuals. Following appropriate revisions, responding to the comments received, and additional reviews and analyses by NRC staff, the "Final Environmental Assessment for Decontamination of the Three Mile Island Unit 2 Reactor Building Atmosphere" (NUREG-0662) was issued in May 1980. The statement discussed several alternatives and the potential environmental impacts associated with each.

Having reviewed the staff assessment and recommendations, together with the comments of the public, the Governor of Pennsylvania, and many others, the Commission issued a Memorandum and Order which authorized the licensee to clean the reactor building atmosphere by means of a controlled purge or release of contaminated air through filter systems. On the same day, the Commission issued a modification of the TMI operating license setting off-site dose limits for the purge.

The purging operation was carried out under detailed procedures approved by the NRC staff; it began on June 28, 1980, and by July 11 was essentially complete. Measurements showed that about 43,000 curies of krypton-85 was released during this period. Samples from the release flow were analyzed to ascertain the presence of radionuclides other than krypton, and the amounts were determined to be insignificant. During the entire operation, members of the NRC staff were on-site to monitor the licensee's activities. In addition, off-site radiation monitoring programs were conducted by the licensee, the NRC, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Department of Environmental Resources of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and also by private individuals through the Community Radiation Monitoring Program set up by the Department of Energy and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The maximum cumulative radiation dose and the maximum dose rate measured at offsite locations were a fraction of the limits allowed under NRC regulations.

Reactor Building Entry

Personnel entry into the reactor building at TMI-2 was an important first step toward acquiring technical data by which to assess radiation levels and equipment damage and plan for decontamination and defueling. On July 23, 1980, after completion of the purging of krypton-85, two engineers in the employ of the licensee entered the reactor building through an airlock. They were wearing protective clothing and carried self-supply air-breathing apparatus. The ini

tial entry lasted for 20 minutes; the engineers took 29 photos and six radiation swipes, and made a general survey of the area for beta and gamma radiation.

A second entry was made on August 15, 1980, by four workers; two of them stayed for 20 minutes and the others for 40 minutes. All were physically exhausted by working at temperatures of 85° to 90°F inside the building while wearing several layers of protective clothing and full-face respirators. The team managed to energize the bulding's lights. They observed that the sump water was murky with floating debris, and that electric wiring had become so brittle it crumbled when touched. A standard black telephone had partially melted. A 55-gallon drum with the top cover still attached was crushed. Numerous rusted surfaces were observed, but the reactor head appeared to be in good condition.

Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement

Responding to a directive of the Commission issued on November 21, 1979, the NRC staff prepared a draft programmatic environmental impact statement dealing with the decontamination and disposal of radioactive waste resulting from the TMI accident. The statement (NUREG-0683) was released for public comment on August 14, 1980. It discussed four fundamental activities necessary to the cleanup: treatment of radioactive liquids; decontamination of the building and equipment; removal of fuel and decontamination of the coolant system; and packaging, handling, storing and transporting nuclear waste. The statement addresses the principal environmental impacts that can be expected to occur as a consequence of cleanup activities, including occupational and off-site radiation doses and resultant health effects, socioeconomic effects, and the effects of psychological stress (see "Special Reports on TMI," below). Off-site doses of radiation from normal cleanup operations were considered, together with those from postulated accidents. The NRC staff concluded that methods exist or can be adapted to perform the cleanup operations at TMI with minimal releases of radioactivity to the environment. It was anticipated that the Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement-incorporating comments from other agencies of government and from the public as well as responses to those comments by the NRC staff-would be ready for issuance by early 1981, following an extensive comment period.

Advisory Panel on TMI Cleanup

While the draft environmental statement on the TMI cleanup was was out for comment, the NRC

announced the creation of a 12-member advisory panel to consult with the Commission and give advice on major stages of the cleanup. The panel was headed by the Chairman of the Dauphin County (Pa.) Commissioners, and includes other officials from State and local government, scientists and citizens from the area. NRC Chairman John F. Ahearne, in making the announcement, noted that "the NRC Special Task Force on the Three Mile Island Cleanup recommended that the Commission develop a formal means to obtain input and views from the residents of the Three Mile Island area on the cleanup plans. Subsequently . . . provision was made for the establishment of a Three Mile Island

Advisory Panel.... We believe this group can provide the Commission with valuable counsel on the actions to be proposed and taken by the NRC regarding cleanup of Three Mile Island Unit 2."

NRC Policy Statement on State Requirements at TMI

On September 23, 1980, the TMI licensee sought a temporary stay of a cease and desist order of the Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission under which the licensee was ordered not to use revenues for cleanup and restoration at TMI-2 which were not

provided by insurance. The licensee took the position that it could not comply with the State Commission's order without violating Federal law requiring it to comply with directives of the NRC. The NRC's policy statement declared: "This Commission strongly emphasizes that all the health, safety and environmental requirements applicable to TMI 2 must be fully complied with by the TMI licensee. In the event of any such conflict [between an order of the State's Public Utility Commission and an NRC requirement].. NRC requirements must supersede State agency requirements that result in a lesser degree of protection to the public. In short, the Commission will not excuse [the TMI licensee] from compliance with any order, regulation or other requirements by the Commission" which serves the purpose of protecting public health and safety or the environment.

Six TMI Workers Incur Radiation Overexposure

During the very early phases of post-accident activities at TMI, an accidental overexposure to radiation affecting six individuals took place. On August 29, 1979, the six men entered a room in the TMI-2 fuel-handling building to inspect and tighten leaking valves preparatory to decontamination of the area. Reactor coolant water, highly contaminated from the March 28 accident, was leaking from the valves. The radiation survey instrument used by the workers showed a gamma dose rate in the room of 10-15 rem-per-hour in general and, in one small zone, of 25 rem-per-hour. It was decided that the time limit on the presence of each worker in the radiation area was four minutes. What the survey instrument failed to disclose was the beta radiation rates in the room, which were running as high as 2500 rem-perhour.

It was later ascertained that the workers had received doses in excess of regulatory limits from the beta radiation. The doses were as high as 166 rem to the whole body, in one instance, and 161 rem in another. No indication of medically significant effects in the personnel was identified by medical examination. The causes of the accident were determined to be inadequate instrumentation for radiation detection and a failure to require adequately protective clothing for the workers. Corrective action was taken under NRC direction.

SPECIAL REPORTS

ON THREE MILE ISLAND

The 1979 NRC Annual Report carried detailed treatment of the major investigations into the TMI-2

accident available during 1979 (see Chapter 2 of that report). Following are discussions of the findings and recommendations coming out of continuing research into the causes and consequences of the accident, from the final reports of major investigative bodies issued in 1980, and from an inquiry into financial problems related to the TMI cleanup.

Psychological Stress Resulting from The Three Mile Island Accident

One of the significant findings of NRC research into TMI-2 was the lingering psychological stress which the accident imposed. Recognizing that psychological and emotional distress would probably be present in the community during the long period of decontamination and cleanup, the NRC staff, in collaboration with consulting psychologists, developed a program to delineate the nature and level of such stress. The first product of this collaboration was a discussion of stress in the final environmental assessment for decontamination of the TMI reactor building atmosphere, published in May 1980 for public comment. In that document, the staff concluded that atmospheric purging of krypton-85 from the TMI containment would result in less psychological impact than alternative decontamination procedures. The staff acknowledged, however, that this recommendation would be unpopular with a segment of the local community. Preliminary observation by the consultants during the venting operation indicated that the more expeditiously the purging operation was conducted, the lower the stress induced by the activity would be.

The complete process of decontamination was addressed in the draft programmatic environmental impact statement on decontamination of TMI, published in August 1980. The conclusion set forth in that issuance was that, although low levels of stress would persist during the cleanup period, no longterm psychological effects on the majority of the community should be expected. Moreover, the general level of stress associated with decontamination subsequent to the purging of the containment atmosphere would be well below that already experienced by residents during the accident.

Socioeconomic Impacts of the TMI Accident

As part of its documentation of post-accident effects at TMI, the NRC developed a research program on the socioeconomic impact on the area. The first element of this program took the form of a telephone survey covering 1,500 households within 55 miles of TMI and seeking information on the activi

ties of household members during and after the accident, their attitudes toward TMI and nuclear power in general, their demographic characteristics, and both the short-term and continuing socioeconomic effects of the accident. This survey constitutes the broadest and most detailed of the studies undertaken in the wake of the TMI accident, as of the end of fiscal year 1980. The survey results were published in October 1979 in a preliminary report, "Three Mile Island Telephone Survey" (NUREG/CR-1093).

The survey results disclosed that the impact of the TMI accident affected large numbers of people, both socially and economically, and that some effects continued long after the accident. The magnitude of public anxiety during the period of the accident can be gauged by the fact that 144,000 persons living within 15 miles of the plant temporarily left their homes, some of them for as long as two months. Those who relocated travelled an average distance of 100 miles, to a total of 21 States. These evacuees stayed mainly with friends and relatives. The economic cost of the accident for evacuated and non-evacuated households was estimated to be $18 million-including evacuation costs, lost pay and other income losses, and other expenses. The emotional stress (see discussion above, under "Psychological Stress") was such as to disrupt the social routines of residents and to cause a large number of them to consider moving out of the area.

To study the short-run impact of the accident on the real estate market, the NRC contracted with the Institute for Research on Land and Water Resources at the Pennsylvania State University in April 1980. The specific objective of the contracted study is the isolation through the use of statistical and nonstatistical techniques-of the accident's impact on, real estate prices, number of sales, delay in sales, and changes in mortgaging policies. Research design incorporating a sample of all single family houses and lot sales from 1975 through 1979, for an area within 25 miles of TMI and for three control areas, has been prepared. The researchers also expected to interview a number of mortgage lenders, realtors, and developers. Results of the study were expected in late 1980.

A second report, expanding upon the telephone survey, was prepared with the cooperation of the Governor of Pennsylvania's Office of Policy and Planning and published in January 1980. It is entitled "The Social and Economic Effects of the Accident at Three Mile Island: Findings to Date" (NUREG/CR-1215). The report deals with impacts of the accident on the regional economy, the business community, local government agencies, churches, schools, hospitals, prisons, and homes for the elderly. It also appraises the impacts on agriculture and tourism, both economic sectors adversely

affected in the short run by the accident. Finally, the report estimates the long-term effects of the accident on persons, business firms, the value of real estate, and political institutions.

Impact of Three Mile Island on Biota

A number of residents near the TMI power plant maintained that there causal connection between the operation of the facility-and the accident there-and problems in the region with the health of animals and plants. The NRC staff investigated the claims, with participation by a veterinarian from the Environmental Protection Agency, a radiobiologist from the Argonne National Laboratory, and a veterinarian from the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture. Their findings, published as an NRC technical report (NUREG-0738), indicated that, while some local residents were in fact having problems with animals and plants, no causal connection could be established between events at TMI and those problems.

With respect to recreational fishing on the Susquehanna River near TMI, comparisons were drawn up between the period after the accident and the period of 1974-1978. The monthly levels of fishing activity were found to be about average during 1979, but harvests, and indices of harvest success, were at record low levels for five months following the accident, though they improved with time until normal levels were attained again in the sixth month. The depressed harvests did not result from degraded water quality or other ecological or radiological causes attributable to the accident, but rather from the fact that many local anglers did not retain their catch, or retained less than normal, because of their concern about the quality of the fish after the accident. The gradual recovery of retained fish harvests followed the same general pattern as the decreasing perception of threat and concern with radioactive emissions among the local populace.

Groundwater Monitoring at TMI

Because of the potential for leaking of radioactive water from TMI into the groundwater and subsequently into the Susquehanna River, the NRC staff requested that the TMI licensee install a series of monitoring wells around the auxiliary and reactor buildings. The wells were completed and monitoring begun in early 1980. Initial tests showed tritium levels below the maximum permissible concentrations, but several readings were higher than normally occurring background levels. The latter fact caused some concern, because if a leak from the reactor