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ture, in grammar, and in lexicons; or how words shift and vary in meaning as time goes on; or how metaphorical and accidental associations become attached to nouns and verbs in such a way that their original meanings utterly disappear. Yet, without some preliminary training in this direction, it is difficult to see how it can be of any advantage to a beginner to quote the etymology of the technical words which occur in his lessons. Such a quotation often furnishes no help whatever to the compre. hension of the precise meaning of the English word; but is rather misleading than otherwise. As to any higher purposes--such as the detection of the finer shades of meaning by which it is to be identified with synonymous words, or distinguished from pseudo-synonymes; the moral or other causes which have effected the changes in its signification; the inflections which it has lost; the letters which have been interpolated; and the numerous questions of comparative grammar which it may suggest --all these are matters wholly unintelligible to students of any age, who have not undergone considerable mental discipline.

It is necessary in this, as well as in all other matters which come within a teacher's cognizance, that he should set before himself clearly the purpose he has in view. We can conceive three possible aims which an instructor may have in contemplation in relation to this subject.

In teaching the roots of a few Greek or Latin words, it may be intended to pave the way for the future acquisition of either of those languages; in other words, it may be supposed that by learning a few detached roots, without any insight into the grammar, a child will be the better prepared for the systematic study of grammar or classical books hereafter.

Or etymology may be taught with a view solely to the elucidation of the meanings of English words.

Or it may be pursued simply for the general purposes of mental discipline, on the ground that exercises in the analysis of words always promote clearness of thinking and accuracy of judgment.

In reference to the first of these purposes it must be admitted, that it will not be served to any considerable extent by etymological lessons. Every one who has ever learnt a language knows, that it is not till he has learnt something of its grammar and general structure, that a copia verborum is of any service to him. There are differences of opinion among teachers of languages as to whether the grammar should be learnt first, and words and sentences be translated afterwards; or whether the elements of grammar should be taught simultaneously with easy exercises in translation; but we never heard of one who supposed that a mass of detached words and meanings should be learnt first. Even Jacotot, who was more inclined than any other eminent teacher to reverse the usual practice in this respect, introduced his pupils to grammatical investigation as soon as they had learnt half a dozen words; and the Hamiltonian and other popular modes of simplifying the study of a language, all agree in recognizing the necessity of rules and principles at the outset as well as of mere words. In truth, if a student wishes, or is intended to acquire a knowledge of Latin or Greek, he will certainly not do well to begin by the separate study of those words in the vocabulary from which English words happen to be derived. He may be sure that in doing so he will be beginning at the wrong end.

As to the value of etymology in elucidating the precise meaning of English words, it is to be remembered, that the mere knowledge of the derivation, in the majority of cases, contributes little or nothing to this end. Tell a child that commit is derived from mitto, I send, and con, with or together; or that succession is from cedo, I go, and sub, under; content yourself with the bare statement of the fact, and you have rather mystified than helped him, in determining the modern signification of those words. The same remark will apply in different degrees to more than half the words contained in an ordinary list of derivatives. The truth is, that in a vast number of cases, the original meaning of the root word was greatly modified, even

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before it was borrowed from the Latin; often, too, the presence of a prefix or suffix has further altered its signification; while, since the word has become acclimated in England, it has either been narrowed or widened, chained to some local or moral association, or employed for some entirely new purpose. If it is in the teacher's power to trace all this,-to show what exact connexion there is between the notion of "loosening" (solvo) and the word "resolution;" or between "folding" (plico) and "application;" "punishment" (pœna) and " "pain ; 'hearing" (audio) and "obedience ;" a "boundary” (terminus) and “determination" or a term ; "timber" (materies) and “matter;” “old” (πρeσßʊs) and “priest; ""wisdom" (oopia) and "sophistry;" or "bile" (xoλn) and "melancholy," it will doubtless be of great service; and the result of his lesson will be, that apart from historical facts of great interest, the pupil will really acquire a much truer conception of the definitions of these words than can be otherwise attained. Nothing but bewilderment and misapprehension, however, can arise from merely knowing the root, in these and hundreds of similar cases. Nothing, we had said-yes, something else will result, that conceit of knowledge without the reality, which is one of the greatest evils in education. There will be the possession of a rather showy and pretentious piece of information, which, while it professes to explain English by the help of Latin, does in fact throw light neither on the one nor the other. Every good teacher will perceive, that if he can so train the minds of his pupils that they can trace the true connexion of such roots and derivatives as we have named, and know exactly where the resemblance in meaning between the one and the other begins and ends, he will be teaching effectively and well. But no mechanical learning of words by rote will do this; nothing but close and intelligent application on the part of learners, and considerable knowledge of the subject, and much skill in detecting and explaining the less obvious meanings of which words are capable, on that of the teacher.

In regard to many subjects, a little knowledge is better than none at all; but in this it is, in fact, rather worse. It is a mere piece of pedantry for one who knows nothing of Latin or French to quote a detached word or two of either language as the root of some English word, unless by it he can actually explain or understand that word the better. As a matter of grammatical history, the fact of the derivation is of extremely small value to him. Moreover, a reference to a foreign language, in illustration of any subject whatever, seems to imply something of scholarship, and carries with it an air of importance, which makes any little inaccuracy doubly ridiculous. It is not absolutely necessary that a moderately well-informed man should know the origin of every word of foreign extraction which he uses; but it is necessary, that any knowledge he profeses on the subject should be precise and thorough as far as it goes. Otherwise it is as delusive as it is pretentious, and is more likely than any other sort of superficial acquirement to expose him to scorn and humiliation.

There can be no doubt, however, that in the hands of a judicious teacher the second of the three purposes we have above enumerated may be partially realised, and the third, to a very considerable extent, by the study of etymologies. We shall subjoin a few very brief rules, by the help of which the right results may be attained.

I. Do not attempt to teach the subject systematically except to elder classes, and to those who have had much practice in grammatical exercises.

II. Introduce the roots of words very sparingly in all other classes, confining them to those English words of a technical and difficult kind, which can be literally explained by a reference to the origin of their several parts, e.g. sub-aqueous, microscope, acoustics, soliloquy, &c.

III. Always insist on having the foreign word, when quoted, accurately spelt and pronounced. Nothing seems more absurd to a person of moderate scholarship, than to see a Latin word incorrectly spelt, or to hear it sounded with a false quantity.

IV. Remember that very few of the Latin and Greek prefixes can be satisfactorily explained by a single English synonyme. Nearly every one of them has two mean. ings; a primary and prepositional one, and a secondary or adverbial one. The former only is given in books, but the latter may be easily discovered, is generally allied in some way to it, and helps to explain a vast number of words which would otherwise be unintelligible. For example, the syllable in is a preposition in some words, and an adverb, meaning "not," in others. So, trans, in "transport," means literally "beyond;" but in "transfigure" and "transmute," it means "thoroughly.” The same remark will be found capable of very wide application. All these derived adverbial meanings should be understood, for by the simple use of the ordinary prepositional synonyme it will be impossible to explain the e in " eloquence," the con in "conscience," the super in "superstition," or the de in "deface,” and a very large number of similar words.

V. Accustom yourself and the pupils to distinguish carefully between the literal and the metaphorical meanings of words, and to discover the process by which those meanings have developed themselves. In almost every list of derivatives from a given root, some of the words will be found to contain the primitive or physical meaning of the root; and others to have gained a secondary or metaphysical meaning. These should be carefully separated, and the suitableness of the metaphor should be pointed out. Thus, "morsel" and "remorse,' "effigy" and "fiction," "image" and "imagination," "pound" and "ponder," "refract" and "infringe," "integer" and "integrity," "epiglottis " and "glossary," and a host of similar pairs of words, not only suggest the necessity of careful verbal discrimination, but furnish useful exercises in logical analyses also.

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VI. Always demand from the pupil an exact definition of the English derivative at the same time as its root. You will find this in itself a good exercise, but it is chiefly useful here, because it serves to bring to light any confusion which may exist between the English and the Latin word; and to secure that the etymology really answers its purpose.

Finally, do not suppose that the science of derivation is an easy thing, either to teach or to learn. Few subjects look easier at first sight; few present greater attractions to those superficial students who desire to look learned, without taking the trouble of becoming so; yet few subjects require more real study, or more delicate logical discernment than this. The list of roots and derivatives to be found in a book, is no true representation of the extent and difficulty of the subject. You may learn them all by heart, and yet have no effective and available knowledge of etymology. The subject is valuable in precisely the degree in which thought and judgment are exercised upon it, and almost worthless otherwise.

Whoever desires to understand the kind of mental exercise which the subject ought to suggest, may study with advantage Trench on the Study of Words, and on English, Past and Present, and Whately's English Synonymes. Of course the best thing for a teacher is to know one of the ancient languages, in its structure as well as its vocabulary; but in the absence of such knowledge, the books we have named will do something to show how the subject should be treated.

By attention to these precautions, etymology may be redeemed from the disrepute into which it has of late fallen; and take its place as one of the principal subjects in the curriculum of an elementary school.

SYSTEMATIC EXAMINATION OF SECTIONS UNDER

PUPIL-TEACHERS.

MOST teachers who conduct large schools in which pupil-teachers are employed, have found more or less difficulty in securing at once the assiduity of these assistants, and the decided progress of the sections with which they are entrusted. Experience has proved to the writer, that one of the most effective methods that can be devised,

is to examine the scholars periodically and systematically, in the subjects in which they receive instruction from the pupil-teacher. The following remarks are suggestive of the mode in which this examination can be carried on. It should be premised that it is expedient to commit to the pupil-teachers the entire management of their sections, in all except scriptural instruction, for in proportion to the responsibility which attaches to them will, most probably, be their earnestness as teachers. Each pupil-teacher should be allowed to have charge of his section for a lengthened period-for six or twelve months, or more, as the case might be. In large schools, it is of importance that the pupil-teachers should vary, as much as possible, as to the years of their apprenticeship, and thus, when they are properly graduated, an opportunity is afforded them of successively teaching all, or nearly all, the sections into which the school is divided. It must not be disguised that some difficulty will arise in the instruction of pupil-teachers who are in different years of their apprenticeship; but it is submitted that these disadvantages are more than counterbalanced in other ways.

In the school where this plan is adopted, each pupil-teacher is provided with an examination book, ruled and headed as under. In some schools, additional subjects would be taken, but the method would be equally available. Scriptural subjects are not mentioned, as it is not thought judicious to apply to these this mode of examination.

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G., Good; F., Fair; M., Moderate; B., Bad; N., Neat; C., Clean; P. C., Pretty Clean;

S., Slovenly.

In many large schools, the master devotes his especial personal attention to the highest section, and in such cases, when he proposes to examine any particular part of his school, which should be at least every month, he can employ his own section

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GENERAL REMARKS.

Less.

GF.M. B.

in some study which does not require much supervision; and if he select two or three of the most advanced and active pupils to assist him in his examinations, his task will be greatly facilitated.

On entering the section, the master should ascertain the number of scholars on the class list, and the number present; by a comparison of these, he is able to judge of the zeal and interest which the pupil-teacher exhibits in endeavouring to secure the attendance of all his scholars; for, whenever it is feasible, he should visit the homes of the absentees, and ascertain the reason of their absence.

To test the character of the reading, each scholar should be taken apart, and required to read a paragraph from some work, of about the same difficulty as that in which he is accustomed to read, and a mark given--“ good," "fair," "moderate," or "bad." The total of each kind should be entered in the examination book, under the proper heading.

In spelling, it is assumed that the scholars prepare every evening a part of the reading lesson as a spelling exercise, and that they are daily examined in this portion. To test their proficiency, twelve words should be selected from the lessons learnt since the previous examination, and these words dictated to them. Those who spell all correctly should be added together, and put in the first column, under the figure 12, those who have eleven, ten, or nine correct, in the second column, and

so on.

In grammar, a sentence should be written on the black board of pretty much the same character, or slightly increasing in difficulty at each examination, and the result would be determined in the same manner as the spelling.

The examinations in geography and history present greater difficulties than the two last, because the aid of the elder scholars is less available; but if questions are given which require a brief answer, the trouble is lessened, and the amount of knowledge, nevertheless, fairly ascertained. A few general questions should also be given, and oral answers demanded, the character of which, if requiring special notice, should be entered under the head of "General Remarks."

The copy-books should be examined one by one, and a comparison instituted between the writing of the present and last period, and the marks given accordingly. Additional remarks should be made if want of neatness or of cleanliness were apparent. In the heading of arithmetic, it will be noticed that the various rules are given, one after the other; and it is believed that in all sections, except those which are greatly advanced, it is judicious to give a sum in each rule. To test the pupils' accuracy in notation, some number, such as ten millions one thousand and eight, should be dictated; and to ascertain with what readiness they could assign the proper value to numbers, they should be required at once to read off the numbers written on their slates by the master, or the senior scholars who were assisting him. It has been found advisable to write a different number on each slate. Methods of this kind will ensure not merely the progress of the children in arithmetic, but will secure the remembrance of all that which they have previously done.

Few good schools of the present day neglect to appoint a certain amount of work to be done at home. The home lessons, of which the character is to be registered, should be chiefly those written on paper or slate; and when the master proposes to examine a section, he should not give any prior intimation. As, therefore, the particular day would not be known, the care with which they had been written would pretty well represent their average character.

It remains to indicate how the marks under the head of personal appearance are obtained. The faces, hands, shoes, &c., should be observed, and the letters N., C., or S., given accordingly. Probably it would be well to tell each scholar, as he came up to you, the estimate which you had formed of his appearance. The teacher would take care that they had no intimation of the day on which he would judge of their appearance, or, of course, there would be preparation for the occasion.

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