it must necessarily be subordinate to the moral nature; indeed, as all countries have laws against its abuses, the propriety of limiting its desires is evident.

We are, now-a-days, permitted openly to maintain the injustice and the violation of natural morality and of true Christian principles, committed when individuals are secured in the possession of peculiar privileges and immunities. We may now also dare to say that personal merit is preferable to the pride of ancestry; that it is more just to reward talents than incapacity; and that every one should be obliged to exercise his natural powers to add to the common stock of industry, and ought only to reap the fruits of his own exertions.

This, the effect of civilisation, is a great step towards natural morality—the only basis of general happiness; but I dare maintain that it is not yet sufficient to render it paramount. The obstacle lies in the inequality of natural talents, and in the weakness of the moral sentiments, in by far the greater number of individuals. So long as every one shall work merely for his own interest, fortunes will necessarily be unequal. A few will succeed each other in opulence, and many will dwell in poverty and misery. This incon⚫veniency is mentioned in the Christian system; a difference of natural gifts is recognised; but all are commanded to employ their endowments to the common advantage.

In this, as in every discussion having the actions of man for its object, I start from the principle that natural morality ought to govern mankind, and that general happiness is preferable to that of individuals. He then who uses his faculties to the furtherance of the common weal, ought to enjoy full liberty, and to meet encouragement in his noble purposes; while all who think only of their private interest are to be superintended, lest the commonwealth suffer by their undertakings.

Great manufactories, for instance, which are so apt to ruin the body and the mind of those engaged in them, must be overlooked; no one has the right to make others vicious and unhappy, that he may procure enjoyments or amass riches; and if personal morality

suffice not to prevent the doing evil, society has a prime right to interfere, and, guided by general morality, to supply all that is defective.

Hence, universal happiness, as it is the aim of legislation in general, must be the basis of all enactments relative to property. So long as individuals shall be suffered to collect riches without limits, the causes of misery and of slavery will endure. The poor will sell themselves to the rich, and the rich will find easy means of imposing their arbitrary will as law upon society.

This, however, is a subject surrounded by innumerable difficulties. Much has been written upon it, but all has not yet rendered it clear in every one of its points. Property must be respected, otherwise civil wars and the dissolution of society would be unavoidable; but, again, if in the regulations concerning property, general happiness be neglected, the order of things established cannot be permanent. Fortunes get more and more concentrated, the equilibrium is disturbed, and in the end the rich to maintain possession are obliged to repel by force the attacks of the poor, who think themselves strong in their numbers. The division of property is, therefore, a necessary condition to general happiness; hence, primogeniture is inadmissible, and opposed to natural morality, which recognises reward as well-bestowed for personal merit alone. I have already said, that if it be unjust to punish children for the faults of parents, it cannot be just to reward them for the merits of sires; I add

That to me it seems necessary for the nations which would secure a permanent existence, to fix the maximum of the property that may be acquired, as well as the conditions, viz., natural morality, in conformity with which it may be amassed; or else, as it seems fair that every one should enjoy the fruits of his labor, parents might, under certain conditions, be permitted to acquire to the extent they pleased, but still have the power of transmitting a certain sum only to their children when arrived at the age of maturity, while the rest of their gains should revert to the commonwealth, and be employed in purposes of public usefulness. This

would be the best way of doing justice to the community, and of preventing idleness, that foster-parent of vice.

History proves that nations attain the highest prosperity when every one is permitted to work for his peculiar advantage; but history also proves that this prosperity is not permanent; its very causes involve the elements of decline; for luxury, indolence, moral corruption, degeneracy of body, and feebleness of mind, are consequences of its temporary endurance, and these are the sure precursors to the death of empires. I leave this discussion to those who are occupied with politics. I am particularly interested in calling the attention of all thinking people to the necessity of founding society on the broad basis of natural morality, itself the sole, sure, and unalterable foundation of universal welfare. This ground is more stable than that which sensual pleasures or the arts and sciences can supply. The indulgence of inferior appetites degrades, morality ennobles human nature, and is indispensable, whilst the arts and sciences are mere embellishments of existence. Jesus taught his disciples to be satisfied with their daily bread and with what is necessary to their existence. He condemned riches in the most severe terms.

To impress still more deeply the importance of subordinating the animal feelings to the faculties proper to man, I shall speak summarily of the love of approbation. This sentiment exists in animals and in man, and exercises a powerful influence over all our actions in society. Still to permit its unbounded activity is a very great error. Nations in whom it prevails are scarcely fit for a free government, servility, so to speak, is their natural bent. Blinded by external appearances they overlook the common welfare. Titles, decorations, encomiums are effectual instruments in the hands of their governors to enslave them.

Two prime errors are to be guarded against; in the first place, distinction is never to be conferred on account of actions resulting from the animal nature, undirected by the superior faculties; and again, distinction ought never to be the aim of human actions.

From all I have said then, it follows that I consider the submis

sion to the natural laws and the practice of natural morality as indispensable to the welfare of mankind at large, and that all social institutions ought to be founded on this natural morality, which has been, is, and will ever be, invariable. Individually I call those happy who enjoy good health and without difficulty subject their animal nature to the faculties proper to man; who, for instance, are satisfied with such things as are merely necessary-with their daily bread; who desire not superfluities, luxuries, riches, or distinctions; who taste of all pleasures in moderation, enjoying every thing, but abusing nothing; who cultivate art or science for the delights it affords; who in every situation do their duty, and who stand not in need of others or foreign aid, to satisfy their active faculties. Unhappy, on the other hand, are almost all who look for their personal well-being in things which are opposed to natural morality; who have many and active faculties, the satisfaction of which depends on others; whose inferior faculties, in short, are the most energetic, especially if they injure the health, and if their indulgence be expensive.

SECTION VIII.

Explanation of different Philosophical Expressions.

Nothing is more vague than the language of philosophy. Many expressions have several significations, and almost every term in use has been invented to designate actions, and not the faculties which produce them. To make this difference felt I shall collect several of the most common words, and in one column give their usual signification, in another their explanation according to the fundamental faculties, referring the reader to the passages either in the physiological or in the philosophical part of this work, in which the terms as they occur are more particularly explained.

A tribute paid by individuals to It is an affection of the sense of

Adoration.

The external homage paid to The effect of the sense of ven

Great desire of preferment and An effect of great activity of the