miles can be produced, using today's technology, for a cost of between $1,000 and $1,400.

Yardney Electric Corp. New York, has converted a Renault to silver-zinc battery propulsion, and reports that this vehicle is capable of attaining a range of 150 miles running at speeds of 30 to 40 miles per hour. To overcome the high initial cost of the silver-zinc battery, Yardney president Michel N. Yardney has suggested that the batteries be leased to the user.

"What is needed is a large organization, such as a Government agency, financial institution, or a major automobile manufacturer who has financial strength to invest their dollars in silver and the silver in Silvercell batteries," he said.

New service facilities, such as battery replacement stations, third rail systems, or charging facilities could extend the range of "firstgeneration vehicles".

With accelerated research, technological breakthroughs could extend the range and speed of electric vehicles. Work on new battery systems such as silver-zinc, nickle-cadmium, zinc-air, sodium-sulfur, and ammonia-air has already started. The key limitations on these new batteries are cost and weight problems.

The work done by the various manufacturers involved in battery or electric automobile research will be described in more detail, and in more expert fashion by witnesses representing these companies.

It is true that electric automobiles were popular early in this century and gradually lapsed into disuse for a variety of reasons. And, it is likewise true that improvements have been made in battery technology only in recent years. Although I am not an engineer or a scientist, it is difficult for me to believe, however, that a nation which has the capability of producing nuclear power and sending men into orbit around this earth at a speed of about 18,000 miles per hour is not capable of developing a feasible electric car that will go about 40 to 50 miles an hour for distances of 100 to 150 miles.

WHO WILL BUY THE SHORT-RANGE VEHICLE

Chairman Lee C. White of the Federal Power Commission stated in a letter of February 25, 1967 to Senator Magnuson, chairman of the Senate Commerce Committee, that

*** we found that the technology for limited range electric battery-powered vehicles exists today * * * The use of battery power could eventually be extended to include school and city buses, street-cleaning trucks, refuse-collection trucks, etc. All of these stop-and-go vehicles contribute greatly to air pollution and their operators should take the lead in converting to electric propulsion. Further, second and third passenger cars of multi-car families also present a large potential market ***

The FPC report, of February 1967 also concluded that sales of a workable electric car "could reach 1,500,000 to 2 million by 1980 and 3 million to 4 million by 1985." It is therefore not surprising that Columnist James J. Kilpatrick, writing in the Washington Star, February 26, 1967, correctly described the electric car as "potentially one of the hottest items in American manufacturing."

A Gallup poll taken in January 1967 asked a cross section of adults whether they would be interested in buying an electric car that "would

have a top speed of about 40 miles per hour and would go about 150 miles before the batteries would have to be recharged, which could be done at home. The car would be small and easy to park and would sell for about $2,000." Thirty-two percent of the people polled answered "yes," which, according to Gallup, represents approximately 36 million adults.

Figures given by the Automobile Manufacturers Association lend further support to the acceptability of short range electric vehicles. These figures show that 60 percent of car trips are less than 5 miles; more than 40 percent of driving on a mileage or trip basis is related to earning a living; the average trip is between 6 and 10 miles; 82 percent of commuters use automobiles, and 56 percent of these cars carry the driver only.

These statistics show than an electric vehicle having a limited range could easily perform the everyday tasks of commuting, and describe a ready market for such vehicles.

THE NEED FOR A TOTAL RESEARCH PROGRAM

George A. Hoffman, writing in the Scientific American, October 1966, stated that "the arrival of the electric car-indeed, whether or not it arrives at all in this century—will depend on how much support is given its development." Many companies are engaged in battery or fuel cell research, and some are testing new systems in operating vehicles. What then is holding back the development of practical electric vehicles, when present technology is available for limited purpose vehicles?

Discussing the present status of battery-powered vehicles, the FPC report to the Senate Commerce Committee noted that "attempts at electric vehicles for street and highway use generally have been commercial failures," and that much work remains to be done, listing the following items:

The energy storage capacities of conventional batteries (lead-acid, nickeliron, nickel-cadmium, and silver-zinc) are too limited or expensive to provide an acceptable energy source for electric passenger cars or any short distance electric vehicle.

A substantially superior method of storing electric energy which will provide much greater storage capacity per unit of weight and volume will have to be developed to meet the needs of electric vehicles.

Gasoline powered vehicles converted to operate with batteries and electric motors do not offer a suitable means of testing the capacity of storage battery powered vehicles.

Although development of a suitable battery is the most important research item much needs to be done on electric motors, controllers and chargers.

Research and development on electric cars must at the same time explore the whole automobile rather than only a few individual components.

Electric vehicles which are conversions of internal combustion vehicles are not satisfactory. What is needed is a research program applying new body and control concepts, specifically designed for electric propulsion.

Domestic automobile manufacturers have announced work they are doing on electric vehicles. Ford is working on a new sodium-sulfur battery, General Motors has converted a Corvair, which is powered by silver-zinc batteries, and a fuel-cell-powered van-type truck. Ford has announced that Ford of Britain is doing work on a low-speed, limited

range vehicle of which a prototype will be ready by spring of 1967. General Motors has indicated that it will take 10 to 15 years before an acceptable system is developed. Ford has indicated that an electric car will not be on the market until the mid-1970's, according to an article in the State Journal of Lansing, Mich., on October 27, 1966. Except for the work of Ford of Britain, no major automobile company in the United States has announced plans for developing a lowspeed, limited-range electric vehicle, which is possible using today's technology. Many smaller concerns are working on vehicles, but labor under severe financial handicaps.

The Battronic Truck Corp., Philadelphia, Pa., is presently producing and selling an electric multistop van truck. Two member utilities of APPA, the Light, Gas & Water Division of Memphis, Tenn., and the Gas & Electric Department of Holyoke, Mass., have purchased Battronic trucks, and are testing their operation.

Because of the air pollution problems which this Nation is facing, it is not sound policy to delay in bringing to full development electric vehicles for which technology already exists. What is needed is a wellfunded program geared toward immediate development of practical electric vehicles, not 10 years from now, when the collision between internal combustion cars and people will occur.

After World War II, Congress realized that rapid development of nuclear energy held great promise for the future, and accordingly stimulated research and development with a federally financed program involving research and demonstration plants. Private industry was permitted full participation in this effort, and, in fact, has been one of the primary beneficiaries.

By its passage of the Saline Water Act of 1958 Congress likewise has provided for the development of prototype desalting plants. The programs in nuclear power and desalting have demonstrated that the competitive influence of well-funded Federal programs can be most effective in stimulating rapid development in areas of vital concern to the people of the United States, and they do not result in the displacement of private enterprise.

Air pollution, urban congestion and environmental dangers caused by internal combustion vehicles are great threats to the health and well-being of people. Just as previous Congresses have responded to the need for accelerating nuclear power development and a means to increase water supplies, so this Congress should take an important first step in developing an electrical alternative to the dangers of internal combustion pollution, as recommended by the President's Science Advisory Committee in 1965.

Research findings made under the type of program we are advocating will be made available to all segments of industry, large and small, who wish to produce electric vehicles. The stimulus provided by a Federal program should spur industry into new programs of research. Major auto producers are not the sole source of ideas on electric vehicles. Other organizations, including defense-related industries, will be able to participate in a sound Federal program.

The price we will pay if serious attention is not given promptly to

electric vehicles will be high. In its present form, the internal combustion engine is unacceptable in urban areas, from the standpoint of air pollution. A smooth transition to nonpollution vehicles will avert the social and economic chaos which could result from drastic steps that might be necessitated later as a reaction to air pollution disasters. Frank M. Stead, chief, Division of Environmental Sanitation, California State Department of Public Health, writing in the winter 196667 issue of "Cry California," has said:

It is clearly evident, therefore, that between now and 1980 the gasoline-powered engine must be phased out. * * The only realistic way to bring about this historic kind of changeover on schedule is to demand it by law in the public interest; that is, to serve legal notice that after 1980 no gasoline-powered motor vehicles will be permitted to operate in California.

As noted by Secretary of Transportation Alan S. Boyd during the 1966 National Conference on Air Pollution, serious proposals have been made to limit automobile access to central business districts, and he said:

Personally, I wouldn't mind seeing that idea tried out in some metropolis, so that we could be spared the repetition of that argument and perhaps arrive at generalizable data.

Proposals to limit access to automobiles may not be feasible because of the dependence people place on personalized transportation; however, with electric vehicles, access would not have to be restricted on pollution grounds; and, because of the smaller size of electric vehicles, congestion in core areas could be eased. In fact, some retirement communities have already restricted travel to electric vehicles only.

The question, threfore, is whether we will be prepared to face the realities of air pollution, and act in the public interest before it is too late. Electric vehicles hold great promise in providing the answer.

Electric vehicles offer many advantages, in addition to being nonpolluting. Electric motor noise is almost imperceptible when properly suppressed. The amount of land devoted to highways and parking lots could be reduced because electric cars would likely be smaller than present cars. Expensive ventilation would not be necessary in underground parking facilities. Savings in fuel costs would result. Energy losses from incomplete combustion of gasoline could be avoided, thereby eliminating waste of a limited and valuable resource. Problems of starting in cold weather could be ended because no warmup is required. Because there are fewer moving parts in an electric vehicle, it would need almost no maintenance during the auto's lifetime. Electric motors can be used for dynamic braking, making stopping simpler and safer.

Passage of the bills you are considering should also have other subsidiary benefits. These bills should stimulate research into "clean" internal-combustion engines, and development of more effective pollution control devices. The "first generation" limited electric vehicle will not replace the internal-combustion vehicle, but it will perform the tasks for which it is well suited in urban areas, and consequently there will continue to be need for improvement in pollution control of internal-combustion vehicles.

FOREIGN DEVELOPMENTS

Senator Magnuson stated, when introducing S. 453, that:

It is ironic that both in the air, with the SST, and on the ground, with the electric, America may play the well publicized role of being No. 2.

Electric vehicles have long been accepted in England, where the Electricity Council estimates that there are more than 40,000 batterypowered trucks currently in operation. The Council has also predicted that within 10 years a million battery-driven automobiles will be in operation in England. Four small electric cars-two British Motors Corp. "mini" cars, and two models developed by Scottish Aviation and Peel Engineering-are now being tested on London streets as a result of the Council's campaign to promote the electric vehicle.

Marquis Piero Girolamo Bargagli, of Pisa, Italy, has already entered the electric-vehicle market with a small, battery-powered car called the "Urbanina." He claims to have received orders for 6,500 of his two-seater vehicles, weighing 750 pounds, with a top speed of 33 miles per hour and range of about 53 miles. This car costs $800 and features a turret-shaped body which can be rotated so that the passengers can get out wherever there is room.

The Chubu Electric Power Co. of Nagoya, Japan, is now testing a small, battery-powered vehicle.

A recent report from Tokyo described a battery-powered vehicle, developed by the Battery Electric Car Development Group, which is equipped with two 84-volt batteries and is capable of traveling about 70 miles at about 45 miles per hour.

The Ministry of International Trade and Industry in Japan also plans to feature electric vehicles during the 1970 World Exposition in Osaka.

According to Electrical World, July 11, 1966, the German Federal Railroad plans to use battery-powered cars which hold 100 passengers, operate at a maximum speed of 62 miles per hour and are capable of 125 to 220 miles of operation.

A newsletter published by the International Union of Local Authorities in January 1967 reported that the city of Munich, Germany, is studying a proposal which would commit the city to “buying vehicles powered by electricity or fuel cells for its fleet of municipally owned vehicles, as soon as more or less competitive models are available."

A report on the development of electric cars prepared for the Electricity Council of Great Britain by K. W. C. Jeremy, and published in the March-April 1966 edition of "Electricity," came to the following conclusion:

Great Britain has the technical ability to lead the world in this area of electrical engineering. The entrepreneur is naturally cautious but investment in such a project may prove worthwhile. Within the foreseeable future, electric cars well may be widespread on the roads of Britain. "Go commuter by half price electricity?" The answer lies in the hands of British Industry. It would be against the national interest to find ourselves importing electric cars.

Industrial firms in the United States should, on the basis of these developments, find a ready and lucrative market in many countries for electrically powered vehicles, and could compete with foreign manufacturers.