there is the pathos of being compulsorily girded (Jn 218); and the mystery of invisible support (Is 45o).

LITERATURE-Keil, Benzinger, and Nowack, Heb. Arch.; Schürer, HJP (see "Clothing" in Index); Conder, Handbook to the Bible; Edersheim, Jesus the Messiah (1887), i. 621-626; Thomson, Land and Book, 8 vols. 1881-1886 (see Garments under 'Manners and Customs' in Index to each vol.); Tristram, Eastern Customs in Bible Lands (1894), pp. 155-176; Maspero, Dawn of Civilization (1896), p. 7181; Lagarde, Gesammelte Abhandlungen (1866), p. 209 ff. G. M. MACKIE.

DROMEDARY.-Besides the word (3) rendered dromedary, but which ought to have been trd. young camel (see CAMEL), there are two words, rekesh (rendered in 1 K 428 dromedaries, and in Est 810.14 mules, and in Mic 1" swift beasts), and rammak (Est 810 AV young dromedaries). Rekesh (a rare synonym of DD) probably denoted a species of horse noted for some choice quality. That this quality was swiftness is quite uncertain. Rammák is Pers. ramah, 'flock' or 'herd' (see Ges. Thes.). In Est 810', lit. 'sons of the herd,' is trd in RV 'bred of the stud.' To all appearance, then, we must drop the dromedary from the list of G. E. POST.

Bible animals.

DROVE. This word is the equivalent in AV of two Heb. words. 1. Ty 'eder (Gn 3216. 19). Eder is elsewhere rendered flock (see FLOCK), except in one place (J1 118), where it occurs twice in the construct state, , which is tra herds of cattle,' and flocks of sheep.' 2. maḥdneh. This word, although rendered in Gn 338 AV drove, is rendered once in the same connexion (327) bands, and twice (32a) company. This last, which is the correct tr., is adopted by RV (cf. Gn_509). See HERD. G. E. POST.

DROWNING.-See CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS. DRUNKENNESS.-The spectacle of men beside themselves through alcoholic drink has been familiar from the beginning of history, and all languages have terms in which to describe it. It is a subject that appears in the Bible, as in other ancient writings.

1. Some of the terms used in the Scriptures in connexion with drunkenness.-The Heb. has no word that describes this vice, like the Eng. words 'drunken,' 'drunkard,' 'drunkenness,' inebriate,' in terms derived from the physical act of drinking, It has two stems in common use ([shakah] and sháthâh, npy and an) referring to the act of drinking; and each denotes indifferently the drinking of water or wine or other liquids, drinking by men or by animals or by the ground. From one of these stems comes the word mashķeh, not often used, denoting a butler or cupbearer, one who serves wine at table (Neh 1", Gn 40' etc.). From the other comes the word mishteh, much used, denoting a formal feast, a banquet. This is often tra by the Gr. wbros, and once (Est 77) by ovμæbolov.

Like the Gr. word, it has in it the idea of a social feast as a gathering where men drink together. This shows that the idea of social drinking is older than the differentiation of the Heb. language. Hence it is the more remarkable that the words of these Heb. stems never, of themselves, denote either vicious carousal or intoxication. They are sometimes used in connexion with carousal or intoxication, but in such cases the author always adds other words to indicate the vicious meaning. Even Ec 107 is not an exception to this. See A different stem is rawah (m), occurring 14 times as a verb, and 6 times in all in the form of three different nouns. The idea is that of being brimful, or saturated, or soaked (Ps 235, Job 371, Is 5811 169 345.7 etc.). It is possible to tr. the Heb., in every passage where these words occur, without recognizing an allusion to drunkenness. But LXX commonly tr. them by derivatives of μetów or rivw, and they are no doubt to be regarded as denoting drunkenness. It is as when we speak of a habitually drunken man as a soaker, or as sodden with drink (Jer 4610, La 315).

Another stem, șâbhâ (×77), is used in all 8 or 9 times. Its meaning is nearly that of our Eng. 'to guzzle,' that is, to drink intoxicants greedily, with stupefying effect. The active participle denotes the guzzler as in the act, the passive participle describes him as affected by the liquor, the noun denotes either the liquor or the act of guzzling (Is 5612, Dt 21, Pr 2320. 21, Nah 110, Is 122, Hos 418).

More important than all these is the stem shakhar (). The verb means to become intoxicated, and in common use are the nouns shekhar, 'intoxicating liquor' (see STRONG DRINK); shikkor, 'drunkard,' and shikkarón, 'drunkenness. Many hold that the word is the same with our sugar, and that group of words in the Western languages. If so, the Heb. word and the Western word start together with the fact that sugar is present at the formation of alcohol, but follow entirely different lines of meaning. The usage of the Heb. stem is abundant and clear, leaving no doubt as to its meaning. Hebrew-speaking people were familiar with the spectacle of men overcome by alcohol, and they used the words of this stem to express this familiar fact.

In NT, and in Gr. VSS of OT, quite a variety of terms are used, but we need mention only one group: éoŋ, ‘habitual intoxication'; μełów, 'to be intoxicated'; μelúσкw, 'to make intoxicated' μelvoμa, an intoxicant'; μévoos, 'intoxicated." In their meaning and use (both literal and metaphorical) the words of this group are similar to those of the Heb. group last mentioned.

2. Particulars given in the Bible concerning drunkenness. - The OT and NT passages that give these particulars, though numerous, are too familiar to need direct citation. If one needs to refer to them, they are easily found by the help of a concordance. Of apocr. passages one will easily recall the contest concerning wine, kings, women, and truth, in 1 Es 34.; the drunkenness of Holofernes, as described in Jth 1220 132; the many references to drinking usages in Sir; and other like passages.

These various canon. or apocr. passages mention abundantly many of the familiar physical effects of drunkenness: staggering, reefing, dizziness, incoherent speech, redness of eyes, vomiting, stupid sleep, insensibility to blows, insatiable appetite for more stimulant. They speak of its mental effects: exhilaration, jollity, loss of good judg ment, inconsequence of thought and purpose, inability to keep secrets, quarrelsomeness, shamelessness, failure to remember afterwards what occurred while one was drunk, the purposed for

getting of one's misery, such facts as the nakedness of Noah, the helplessness of Amnon, the sodden condition of Nabal. They speak of festal drinking, of usages compelling one to drink, or exempting him from compulsion (Est 18), of carousals, dissipations, excess, riot, of the Syrian king drinking himself drunk in his tent in the face of the enemy, many times of the high-born people of both Israel and Judah as wasting their property and energies in costly drinking feasts, of the connexion of drunkenness with licentiousness and gambling, of orgies in which the three were mingled (J13). They speak of the permanent effects of these things on one's condition of life, of the guzzler and the glutton who bring themselves to poverty, to loss of energy, to rags. They speak of sociological effects, of men who by reason of private dissipations neglect public duty, of men who ought to be ambitious to serve God and their country, but whose actual ambitions run in the line of compounding or drinking intoxicating beverages (e.g. Is 511. 1. 22), of consequent incapacitation for leadership, and resulting oppression and injustice at home, and boundless defeat and slaughter by foreign invaders.

In these and other particulars no one can fail to recognize the widespread prevalence of drunkenness and its evils in the biblical times, and their identity with the same evils as now existing. Especial importance attaches, therefore, to any thing the Bible has to say in regard to the remedy. The author of Sir says: Wine drunk in season and to satisfy is joy of heart and gladness of soul; wine drunk largely is bitterness of soul, with provocation and conflict' (3128.29). Similar passages abound in ancient literature. They commend the moderate use of intoxicants, and condemn the excessive use; generally drawing the line, however, not between exhilaration and drunkenness, but between drunkenness that is regarded as occasional and seasonable and drunkenness that is habitual and unseasonable. In view of this, it is worth noting that our canonical books contain no such passage. On the other hand, they unqualifiedly condemn drunkenness. They lay down the proposition, Look not on the wine when it is red' (Pr 2381). In such cases as those of the priests (Lv 109), of Daniel, of the Rechabites, of the Nazirites, they teach that even total abstinence is sometimes a duty.

An account of the intoxicating liquors mentioned in the Bible will be found under the titles STRONG DRINK and WINE. See also FOOD.

3. The difference between the ancient and the modern problem.-With all their many points of identity, there is a large and important group of differences. Any one who will carefully study all the passages in the Bible which speak of this matter will note that, in a large majority of them, drunkenness is explicitly spoken of as the vice of the wealthy. Perhaps there is not an instance in which habitual drunkenness is attributed to any who are not wealthy. In modern times, on the contrary, drunkenness is supposed to be much more prevalent among the poor than among the well-to-do. This difference is not an accident. It is mainly the result of the cheapening of intoxicants, through improved processes of distilling and brewing, introduced within the past two or three centuries. When the price of enough wine or beer to make a man drunk was equal to half a month's wages, and no other intoxicants were to be had, it was impossible for most men to become sodden drunkards. The case is different when an hour's labour will pay for an intoxicating quantity of cheap liquor. In the older time, habitual drunkenness was possible for thousands where it is now possible for hundreds of thousands. This

vast modern extension of the domain of intemper. ance should not be forgotten when we study the Bible for practical light on the subject. To this might be added a large number of important differences of detail between ancient life and modern life that have bearings on the question in hand. The outcome of such a comparison is that drunkenness and its attendant evils, inexcusable, widespread, harmful, and dangerous as they were in the civilizations in which the Scriptures were written, are immeasurably more so in our existing civilization, and we ought to deal with the problem accordingly. W. J. BEECHER.

DRUSILLA (Apoúσia).—See HEROD.

DUKE. This word being applied in AV with two exceptions to the chiefs of Edom, the impression is formed that in the family of Esau this was a hereditary title, as it is in Britain now. It is, however, never a title in AV, but a general expression for chief,' being formed from Lat. dux (the word in the Vulg.), and the tr. of a word ( or 'alluph) which is also applied to the princes of Judah (Zec 97 125. 6. See CHIEF, ii. 3).

The Heb. word is probably more specific than its Eng. equiva lent, being held by Dillmann (on Gn 3615) to be derived from eleph, a thousand; so properly a chiliarch,' and understood by Driver (Expos. III. ii. 9) to denote properly the leader of a clan, and as 'probably the indigenous name borne in Edom by the chiefs of the several quλai or clans'; while in Eng. 'duke' was freely applied to any leader or chief of any rank and nation. Thus 'Annibal, duke of Carthaginensis '-Sir T. Elyot, The Governour, ii. 233: Ther was a duk that highte Theseus Chaucer, Knight's Tale, 2; after whom Shaks. Mids. Night's Dream, 1. L 20: Happy be Theseus, our renowned duke!'; Latimer (Works, 1. 31) calls Gideon a duke'; and Wyclif uses the word of the Messiah, Mt 26 And thou, Bethleem, the lond of Juda, art not the leest among the prynces of Juda; for of thee a duyk schal go out, that schal gouerne my puple of Israel'; and Select Works, iii. 137, Jesus Christ, duke of oure batel, taght us lawe of pacience, and not to feght bodily.' Between 1572 and 1699 (that is, when AV was made) the title was extinct in England J. HASTINGS.

DULCIMER.-See MUSIC.

DUMAH ().-1. Son of Ishmael (Gn 251, 1 Ch 1"), representing some Arabian tribe or locality. There are many places of this name mentioned by the Arabian geographers, its signification in Arabic (daumun, nom. unit. daumatun) being the branched wild nut, common in Arabia Deserta (Doughty, Travels in A. D., Index). The most important of the places called after it, Dumat al-Jandal (also written Daumat and Dauma') was identified by the earlier Mohammedan archæologists with the place mentioned in Gn (Yakut, s.v.); and it is probable that the same place is referred to by Pliny (HN vi. 32), who is acquainted with a Domatha in the neighbourhood of the Thamudeni (as well as a Thumati), and Ptolemy, who mentions a city Aovμeld or Aovuated in Arabia Deserta (v. 19, 7), as well as a city of importance of the same name in Arabia Felix (viii. 22, 3). Stephanus Byz. s.v. quotes Glaucus in the second book of his Arabian Antiquities as mentioning a city of the name, and Porphyry, De Abstinent. ii. 56, asserts that an Arabian tribe named Dumathii sacrificed a boy every year, and buried him under the altar which they used as an idol, probably with reference to the same place. Its site is fixed by the geographer Al-Bekri (i. 353) as 'ten days' journey from Medina, ten from Cufa, eight from Damascus, and twelve from Misr'; but by Mas'udi (Bibl. Geog. Arab. vii. 248) as five from Medina, and fifteen or thirteen from Damascus,' the latter numbers being probably more correct. The 'sūk Dūma,'

discovered by Burckhardt in the Jauf (Travels in Syria, 662), has been identified with it partly on the ground of the correspondence of the names of the surrounding villages with those mentioned by the geographers (cf. Ritter, Erdkunde von Arabien, ii. 360-388). The only further reference to it in the Bible is perhaps to be found in the heading of Is 211, where an obscure oracle in a strange dialect is introduced with the words 'the massa' of Dumah'; for this the LXX substitutes Idumæa, and many modern critics are inclined to interpret the name Dumah (in Heb. 'silence') allegorically. It is probable that more accurate knowledge of the purport of the oracle would show the geographical interpretation to be right. 2. Name of one of the mountain cities of Judah (Jos 1552) according to the reading of most of the editions; but in that of Ginsburg, Rumah (7) is substituted, and this reading is supported by the LXX ('Peμvá or 'Povud) and the Vulg. It is probable, however, that the ordinary reading Dumah is correct. In the Onomast. Aovud is given as the name of a large village in the Daroma, seventeen miles from Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin); and it was identified by Robinson with Khirbet Daumah, in the neighbourhood of Beit Jibrin, where are to be seen the ruins of a village situated on two hills separated by a valley, with remains of many cisterns and caves excavated in the rock, belonging to the Canaanite or Jewish epoch, as well as vestiges of Christian buildings. The seventeen miles' of the Onomast. is an overstatement, due to the tortuous routes followed in the mountain country (Guérin, Judée, iii. 359–361). D. S. MARGOLIOUTH.

DUMB.-See MEDICINE.

DUNG.-1. Used in the East as manure (Lk 138) and for fuel; especially that of cattle, where wood and charcoal are scarce or unattainable. In Eastern cities there is usually a receptacle for the offal of cattle, whence it is carried out and either burnt or used as manure. Directions for personal cleanliness are given in Dt 2310-14; and in the case of sacrifices the dung of the animals was burnt outside the camp (Ex 2914, Lv 411. 12 817, Nu 195).

2. The word is used (a) to express contempt and abhorrence, as in the case of the carcase of Jezebel (2 K 987); and in that of the Jews (Jer 922, Zeph 117). (b) To spread dung upon the face was a sign of humiliation (Mal 23). (c) As representing worth lessness, St. Paul counted all things but dung that he might win Christ (Ph 38). E. HULL.

DUNG GATE.-See JERUSALEM.

DURA ( Dn 3', a plain 'in the province of Babylon'). Etym. uncertain. The word may be connected with the Bab. duru, a strong wall or fortification, possibly also with Dor (Jg 1) and with s. Ammianus Marcellinus (xxv. 6) mentions it as situated E. of the Tigris. The distance of such a locality from Babylon seems to preclude the possibility of its being the same as that alluded to in Daniel. The validity of this objection depends upon the extent of territory which may be regarded as included in the expression n. The same objection of distance applies to the place of this name which occurs in Polybius (v. 48), which was on the Euphrates near the mouth of the Chaboras, more than 200 miles N. W. of Babylon.

A third (and the most probable) locality suggested is to the E. of Babylon, where Oppert found what appears to be the base of a great statue, near a mound known as Dúair.

G. WALKER.

DURE. The simple vb. 'dure' (fr. Lat. durare, be hard,' 'last') is now obsol., its place being filled

by endure.' It occurs in AV Mt 1321 only: 'Yet hath he not root in himself, but dureth for a while' (RV 'endureth for a while,' Gr. Tрóσκapós or, lit. 'is temporary'; Wyc. is temperal, Rhem. 'is for a time'; 'dureth' is Tindale's word, who translates the same expression in Mk 417 by endure,' and is followed by AV). 'During,' still in use, is the pres. ptcp. of this verb; cf. Tindale, Works, p. 476: when the disciples were come together vnto the breakyng of the bread, Paule made a sermon duryng to mydnight.' Not in AV, during' is introduced by RV into Mt 265, Jn 223 132, Rev 11. Durable is still in use, and applicable to clothing, as Is 2318, but scarcely now to riches, as in Pr 818. Cf. Purchas, Pil. p. 28: They might take up their Crosse, and follow the second Adam unto a durable happinesse.' J. HASTINGS.

་

DUTY is that which is due. In mod. Eng. it is only that which is due by one, but formerly expressed also that which is due to one. This is the meaning of Ex 2110, AV If he take him another wife; her food, her raiment, and her duty of marriage shall he not diminish' (so RV). Cf. Tindale's tr. of Mt 2014 Take that which is thy duty, and go thy waye,' and of Lk 1242 'to geve them their deutie of meate at due season'; and Knox, Hist. p. 117: 'I will serve my Prince with body, heart, goods, strength, and all that is in my power, except that which is God's duty, which I will reserve to him alone.' Shaks. uses the word in both senses, Tam. of Shrew, IV. i. 40: Do thy duty, and have thy duty.' For the biblical conception of Duty, see J. HASTINGS.

ETHICS.

DWARF is the rendering in AV and RV of p1, a word (Lv 2120) denoting one of the physical disqualifications by which a priest was unfitted for service. The word means thin, lean, small. It is applied to Pharaoh's lean kine (Gn 413 etc.), to the minute grains of manna (Ex 1614), to the still, small voice (1 K 1913), and in other like instances. The conjecture that it here means a dwarf is plausible. But others regard it as meaning an unnaturally thin man-a consumptive, perhaps. The Sept. (pnλos) and Vulg. connect this specification with the one that follows, as indicating defective eyes. So the meaning must be regarded as uncertain."

W. J. BEECHER.

DYEING. The art of dyeing is not mentioned in Scripture, but dyed stuffs are referred to in various passages, and hence it is altogether probable that dyeing was known to the Israelites. The coloured stuffs mentioned are blue, purple, and scarlet; these all occurring together in the description of the hangings of the tabernacle (Ex 2636). It would seem that the yarn was dyed before weaving (cf. Ex 3525), as we know was the custom of the Egyptians (cf. Wilk. Anc. Eg. ii. p. 166, ed. 1878), from whom the Israelitish women may have acquired the art. The Egyptians were certainly acquainted with the art of dyeing by the use of chemicals, though they may not have understood the chemical properties of the materials employed (cf. Pliny, xxxv. 11, and Wilk. ii. 168, 169), and the Hebrews no doubt knew something of it at the time of the Exodus. At a later period they may have learned from the Phoenicians the process of making the Tyrian purple, so renowned among the ancients; but it is not probable that they produced it, as they could not readily procure the shell-fish used in its manufacture. The purple of the tabernacle, if made by the Hebrews, must have been obtained from other sources and by other methods. Purple occurs in Pr 3122 as the clothing of the virtuous woman; and as it stands in a long list of items of her handiwork, it may indicate that she knew how to make it. Scarlet was obtained by a