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or of two or more propositions connected together. A sentence consisting of one proposition is called a Simple Sentence; as, "I study my lesson." A sentence consisting of two or more propositions is called a Compound Sentence; as, "Industry procures a competence, and frugality preserves it."

Sentences are Declarative; as, "I am writing." Interrogative; as, "Where am I?" Imperative; as, "Be quiet." Conditional; as, "If he should grieve." Exclamatory; as, "O wretched man that I am!" For a more full account of sentences, see § 571.

§ 436. CONCORD is the agreement which one word has with another in Gender, Number, Case, or Person.

§ 437. GOVERNMENT is that power which one word has over another in directing its Mode, Tense, or Case.

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§ 438. CONVERTIBILITY.-In Syntax, one part of speech is often used for another, and may, therefore, be said to be convertible, as in this example, To err is human error is human. The combination to err is an Infinitive verb, and yet it is converted from its primary use into a noun. In like manner, the Participle is used as a substantive; as, Erring is dangerous error is dangerous. The Adjective is converted into a Substantive; as, The evils of life; the goods of fortune. So an Adverb, a Preposition, or a Conjunction can be used for a noun; as, One long now=present time: He said from, not to; none of your ifs. In these examples, now, from, and if are used as Substantives. In like manner, a preposition can be converted into an Adjective; as, A through ticket.

§ 439. GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENTS.-When one phrase or word can take the place of another phrase or word in a sentence, without materially changing the meaning of the sentence, it is a Grammatical equivalent of the other: To err is human =error is human. See § 581.

§ 440. The GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT is the same as the Logical Subject, when the latter is a simple term or single word; as, "God is great." Here the Grammatical subject of the verb is and the Logical subject are the same, namely, God. When the Logical subject is complex, and made up of a combination of words, the Grammatical subject is the

leading word in that combination. "ALEXANDER, the son of Philip, was the conqueror of Darius." Here Alexander, the son of Philip, is the Logical subject, being a complex term; and Alexander, the leading word, is the Grammatical subject. ALEXANDER, who conquered Darius, was the son of Philip. Here Alexander, who conquered Darius, is the Log ical subject, and Alexander is the Grammatical subject. The Grammatical subject is either a Noun or some word standing for a noun. The Logical subject consists of the Grammatical subject and its various modifications.

§ 441. THE GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE (Latin Predicare, to assert) is the same as the Logical Predicate, when the Logical Predicate is contained in a common verb, or when the Logical predicate is a simple term or single word; as, "He runs," "he is an orator," "he is wise." Here the Grammatical predicates are the same as the Logical predi cates. But when the Logical predicate is a complex term, and made up of a combination of words, the Grammatical predicate is the leading word in that combination; as, "The Scriptures are worthy of our confidence." Here worthy of our confidence is the Logical Predicate, and worthy is the Grammatical Predicate.

The Grammatical predicate is contained in a common verb which also contains the copula; or else is a Noun or an Adjective, or what stands for a noun or an adjective, with the Substantive verb as a copula. A Logical predicate is the Grammatical predicate with its modifications. See § 381.

Of a subject we may predicate, 1. An action; as, "He loves." 2. A quality; as, "Gold is heavy." 3. Identity; as, Iron is a mineral. In these three cases there is, in the first, a verb; in the second, an adjective; in the third, a substantive.

FIGURES OF SYNTAX.

§ 442. I. ELLIPSIS, Greek deups, an omission, is the omission of some word or words in a sentence necessary to a full and regular construction; as, "The heroic virtues I admire" which is here omitted. "He (Marat) three times changed the title of his journal, its spirit never."

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II. PLEONASM, Greek λɛovaoμós, fullness, is a redundancy of words: "Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the universal esteem and love of all men." Here universal is. redundant, or the and of all men are redundant.

III. ENALLAGE, Greek έvaλλayý, change, is the use of one gender, number, case, person, tense, mood, or voice for another; as, "He begun to write," for "he began to write."

IV. ZEUGMA, Greek Sɛvypa, a joining, is a figure by which an adjective or verb which is put in construction with a nearer word is, by way of supplement, referred to one more remote; as, "They wear a garment like that of the Scythians, but a language peculiar to themselves."

V. HYPERBATON, Greek vпéрbarov, transgression, is the transposition of words; as, "All price beyond."

VI. HYPALLAGE, Greek inа2λayn, change, is an interchange of construction; as, "His coward lips did from their color fly," instead of "the color did fly from his coward lips."

VII. ANASTROPHE, Greek ȧvao-pop, inversion, is a figure of Hyperbaton, by which we place last, and perhaps at a great distance, what, according to the common order, should have been placed first. The beginning of Paradise Lost is an example of that figure:

"Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit

Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste

Brought death into the world and all our woe,

With loss of Eden, till one greater man

Restore us and regain the blissful seat;

Sing, heavenly Muse!"

The natural order of the words in this passage is, Heavenly muse, sing of man's first disobedience, &c.

VII. HYSTERON PROTERON, Greek vorepov, latter, πρóτεрov, former, is a figure by which that which is first done is last mentioned; as, "He was bred and born in Boston;""Our father is in good health; he is yet alive."

EXERCISES.

§ 443. Point out first the Logical Subject and Predicate, and then the Grammatical Subject and Predicate in each of the following sentences:

The intellect of the wise is like glass; it admits the light of heaven, and reflects it.

A speech being a matter of adaptation, and having to win opinions, should contain a little for the few, and a great deal for the many.

The virtue of paganism was strength; the virtue of Christianity is obedience.

Beauty is perfection unmodified by a predominating ex pression.

Knowledge is the parent of love; wisdom, love itself. Nature is mighty; Art is mighty; Artifice is weak; for Nature is the work of a mightier power than man. Art is the work of man, under the guidance and inspiration of a mightier power. Artifice is the work of mere man in the

imbecility of his mimic understanding.

§ 444. Give names and definitions of the following Figures in Syntax :

We speak that we know.

His genteel and agreeable manners have made him a uni versal favorite of every body.

Air blackened, rolled the thunder, groaned the ground.
When first thy sire to send on earth

Virtue, his darling child, designed.

He gave the reins to his horse and his fury.
He is well and alive.

The skipping king-he ambled up and down.

CHAPTER II.

SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE.

NOMINATIVE CASE.

§ 445. RULE I.--A Noun used either as the SUBJECT or the PREDICATE of a finite verb is in the Nominative Case; as, "Man reasons;" "he is the architect of his own character."

What is peculiar to the Pronoun is given under the rules for the Pronoun. The leading rules under the noun apply also to Pronouns. The words Subject and Predicate, without a qualifying epithet, are in Syntax generally used in the Grammatical sense, though the Logical sense is the primary

one.

Note 1. A Noun, used in Direct Address, is in the nominative case; as, "Oh Judgment, thou art fled to brutish beasts!" "John, come hither." This last example is equivalent to the vocative case in the Latin Language.

Note 2. A Noun with a Participle, used Independently of the Grammatical construction into which it logically enters, is in the nominative case; as, "He being dead, we shall live;""the king having arrived, the soldiers were drawn up in battle array."

Originally, in the Anglo-Saxon, nouns thus standing Independently or absolutely were in the Dative; as, Up a sprungenre sunnan = =the sun having arisen. Him also, in the Anglo-Saxon, was in the dative. This would seem to justify the phraseology in Milton, "and him destroyed, or won to what may work his utter loss.” In other cases, Milton conformed to the rule just given; as, "Whose gray top shall tremble, he descending."

A noun and a participle thus used in the nominative absolute form is an abridged sentence, and may be introduced into the general construction by the proper conjunction or adverb; as, "The two armies being thus employed, Cælius began to publish several violent and odious laws." The nominative Absolute in this sentence can be resolved into the following Grammatical equivalent: "While the two armies were thus employed, Cælius began to publish several violent and odious laws."

Note 3. A Nominative without its intended Verb sometimes occurs in a certain abrupt mode of writing; as, "These men-how I detest them!" The first words being the subject of discourse when uttered awaken such strong feeling in the mind of the speaker, that he quits the trammels of a formal arrangement, and leaves the nominative without a verb. In expressions like the following there is a Pleonasm.

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