In the word aλnoivoλoyia, truth-speaking, there are two compounds, namely, αληθινος from αληθης, and λόγος : λόγος means speech, a word. Aλnoivoλoya is then a compound word, resembling in form as well as import this term which we coin for the purpose of illustration, namely, truth-speaking. Take another instance from our own language. Aristocracy is made up of apioTos, best, and кратeiα, power or government, and so signifies, not best government, but the government of the best. Barium Casium Calcium Cerium COMBINING SYMBOLS. WEIGHT. THE METALS. Tрapikos, pertaining to writing. letter. Γραμματεία, the art of writing. Mo. 96. 58.7. Chromium Cobalt Copper (Cu Sodium (Na D. 96. E. Glucínum Gl. 9.3. You cannot obtain all the information contained in the Etymological Vocabulary, until you know the second word which enters into combination with each separate root. I shall therefore supply these second terms, together with their significations. SECONDARY COMPONENTS. LESSONS IN CHEMISTRY.-II. ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES-METALLOIDS-METALS-SALTACID ALKALI-BASE-CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. SEEING that "atoms" are indivisible, and that cohesion binds them into masses, whilst affinity joins different atoms to form new substances, it naturally follows that all bodies are either simple or compound. Simple or elementary substances cannot be split up into others which essentially differ from the original body, whilst compound substances can. In the example of chemical combinations given in the last lesson, the sulphur and copper were simple substances or "elements," and the sulphide of copper, which was formed on the application of heat, was a "compound" body. No efforts of the chemist have proved sufficient to split up sulphur or copper. They defy all power to alter or change them; but, by using certain means, the sulphide of copper can be made to resolve itself once more into its components-copper and sulphur. The constitution of a body may be determined by two means: either by analysis, which is separating a body into its components or elements, or by synthesis, which is the putting together of the components to form the body. By analysing the substances of which our earth is composed, sixty-three elements have been discovered; and in after years, when we possess more powerful means of analysis, we may find that some of these "elements" are capable of further division. The elements are usually divided into forty-nine metals and fourteen non-metallic substances or metalloids. The distinction between these two classes is not very satisfactory. The metals are opaque, they possess metallic lustre, and are good conductors of heat and electricity. The metalloids either want these properties or possess them only in a very low degree. This division is not very accurate, for iodine and carbon, though metalloids, both have metallic lustre; and the latter, in the form of plumbago or graphite, is a good conductor of electricity. For the sake of convenience and shortness in writing, symbols are used for the elements. These consist of the first-or the first and most characteristic-letter of the Latin name of the body. In the following table, the metals printed in italics are of rare occurrence : Lithium Magnesium Manganese Mercury (Hy. dragium) The numbers in the third column are the combining weights, or, as they are sometimes called, the equivalent numbers, or atomic weights. A chemical compound is made up of molecules. Each molecule, as we have seen, is composed of atoms, and each atom is indivisible; therefore, whatever proportion the atoms bear to each other in the molecule-whether in number, or weight, or volume-they will have that same proportion in the mass. that 16 grains are oxygen and 2 grains are hydrogen, but the For instance, if we analyse 18 grains of water, we shall find molecule of water is composed of 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 of oxygen; therefore we conclude that one atom of oxygen weighs 16 times the atom of hydrogen, and in the 2 grains of hydrogen there will be double the number of atoms as in the 16 grains of oxygen, because such is the case in the molecule. Because hydrogen is the lightest of all known bodies, its atom is taken as the standard, and by careful analyses the compara. tive weights of all other atoms have been determined. The French take the equivalent of oxygen-100-as their standard. It is to be remembered, then, that the equivalent number of any element signifies the relation in weight which the atom of that element bears to an atom of hydrogen; and since chemical compounds are formed by the union of atoms, the atomic weight will also represent the weight in which the element will enter into combination. Sometimes one, two, or many atoms enter into the compound, so that whatever may be the quantity of the element, it must always be a multiple of the atomic weight: hence the name combining weight. And it very frequently happens that one element in a compound is replaced by another, one atom taking the place of another, the weight of one atom being equivalent to the weight of the other; hence the name equivalent number. The student will soon become familiar with these laws of combination. In writing compounds, the symbols of the elements are placed side by side, and the number of atoms, if more than one, written beneath. CuO = copper and oxygen combined, to form the oxide of copper. H,O water; 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 of O. 2NH, =2 atoms of ammonia; that is, 2 atoms of N and 6 of H. A salt is a compound of an acid and a base. An acid is a body possessing a sour taste, and will redden litmus paper and vegetable blues. Formerly it was supposed to owe its properties to the presence of oxygen, but it has been found that an acid can exist without that gas, but hydroge must always be present. Hence, an acid is now defined to be a salt of hydrogen. The alkalies are the strongest bases. A base is generally the pence column, and adding the 2 shillings to the row of shiloxide of a metal. Acids which end in ic make salts which end in ate. Sulphuric acid (H,SO) makes sulphates. Nitric acid (HNO,) makes nitrates. Those which end in ous make salts ending in ite. Sulphurous acid (H,SO,) makes sulphites. Nitrous acid (HNO,) forms nitrites. And it will be observed that the acids in ous have an atom less oxygen than those in ic. Salts may be formed by the replacement of the hydrogen in the acids by an atom of metal; so that chemical nomenclature, generally mastered with such difficulty, may be learnt at once. Some metals are capable of replacing 1 atom of hydrogen, some 2, some 3, and others 4. They are said to be respectively, monatomic, diatomic, triatomic, and tetratomic, and the most important may be arranged thus: MONATOMIC, : ETT Ammonium Ag. All the rest are diatomic. = If we take for the type of the oxides, water H2O (the oxide of hydrogen), then K,O is the oxide of potassium or potash. To get the oxide of gold, the H must be in a multiple of 3; therefore take 3 atoms of H2O: 3H,O H.O,. Now gold is triatomic, 1 atom being capable of replacing 3 of H, hence the oxide of gold Au,O,. Tin is tetratomic; we must therefore have the H in 4 atoms, or a multiple of 4: 2 H2O = H.02. 1 atom Sn replaces H., hence SnO, is the oxide of tin. = The mode of constructing this table will be easily understood, and the student should accustom himself to write the formulas of all the salts of the metals, the simple rule being, take the acid of the required salt, and for its hydrogen substitute the equivalent number of atoms of the metal. The types which are placed at the head of the columns are the compounds of hydrogen, in some cases acids: lings, we get 40 shillings-i.e., 2 pounds exactly. Writing down a cipher under the shillings' column, to show that there are no shillings over, and adding the 2 pounds to the pounds' column, we get 23 pounds, which we write down under the pounds' column. 4. Rule for Compound Addition. Write the quantities so that those of the same denomination stand under each other. Beginning with the lowest denomination, find the sum of each column separately, and divide it by that number which is required to make one of the next highest denomination. Set the remainder under the column added, and carry the quotient to the next column. Obs. In the example given above we expressed the farthings in a separate column for clearness, and not as fractions of a penny, but it is not usual to do so. EXERCISE 43. 1. Add together the following examples in Compound Addition : 1. £3 17s. 0дd., £12 5s. 10}d., £2 Os. 54d. 2. £4 198. 11td., £15 14s. 31d., £21 17s. 2d., £57 13s. 9d., 16s. 01d., 3. £22 3s. 51d, £13 2s. O‡d., £33 14s. 9 d., £23 19s. 10 d. 4. £987 17s. 10d., £896 16s. 114d., £774 12s. 10 d., £916 18s. 91d., £768 15s. 6d. 5. £4736 16s. 11 d., £9804 118. 101d, £3896 12s. 6d., £7925 17s. 114d, 8730 12s. 10d., £4913 15s. 74d., £7835 16s. 93d., £9768 178. 10 d. Orides Sulphates H,0 H.SO. (water). acid). (hydrochlo ric acid). Sulphides Chlorides Chlorates H,S HCI HCIO, (sulphu(chloric retted 26 6 45 3 17 80 0 31 acid). hydrogen). 8. Cu 0. Cu SO Fe Cl.. Fe 2 CIO,. Sb, S.. Au 3 NO. Au C1. 28 5 8 7 Sn 280. Al 4 NO,. Pt Cl.. Occasionally other terms are used, but their meaning is at once obvious. Binoxide means an oxide in which are 2 atoms of oxygen: SnO,. In a sesquioxide, the oxygen is in the proportion of 1 (sesqui), Fe,O, (sesquioxide of iron). Terchloride, where there are 3 atoms of chlorine, AuCl,, the terchloride of leagues. m. fur. rods. yds. 3 27 3 35 10 00 10 It must be remembered that all these compounds do not always occur in nature, but if they did their formula would be found according to this rule. LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC.-XXV. COMPOUND ADDITION. 3. THE process of adding together two or more compound sq. yds. ft. in. quantities of the same kind is called Compound Addition. The method scarcely requires any explanation, and will be under £ .. d. far. 6 11 5 1 4 9 6 2 3 12 8 3 8 6 9 1 23 0 5 3 stood at once from an example. EXAMPLE.-Add together £6 11s. 54d., £4 98. 64d., £3 12s. 8d., and £8 6s. 91d. Placing the farthings under the farthings, the pence under the pence, etc., we add the farthings, which amount to 7-i.e., to 1 penny and three farthings. Writing down the 3 farthings under the farthings' column, and adding in the 1 penny to the row of pence, we get 29 pence i.., 2 shillings and 5 pence. Writing the 5 pence under the 1t576 15 10 9 KEY TO EXERCISE 42, LESSON XXIV. (Vol. II., page 7). 1. 1806. 2.68810. 3. 86768. 4. 284079. 5. 96615. 6. £25 13s. 6d. 7. £433 1s. 2 d. 8. 66 gns. 15s. 2d. 9. 1448 sixpences, 2172 grts. 10. 6050. 11. 170472. 12. 9000. 13. 1010047. 14. 2lbs.1 oz. 10 dwts. 16 grs. 15. 177 lb. 9 Oz. 12 dwts. 16. 1785. 17. 631680. 18. 116869. 19. 80797440. 20. 9 cwt. 0 qrs. 8 lbs. 21. 119 tons 6 cwt. 3 lbs. 22. 19 cwt. 2 qrs. 23. 9120. 26. 88 lbs. 4 Oz. 7 drms. 3 scps. 27. 47520 yds. 142560 ft. 1710720 in. 28. 712800 ft. 8553600 inches. 29. 960000 perches, 5280000 yards. 30. 54 m. 7 fur. 211 yds. 2 ft. 31. 29 m. 4 fur. 172 yds. 2 ft. 7 in. 32. 5031 rods 27670 yards. 33. 17 m. 0 fur. 20 65. 32640858360 sq. rods, or 17 m. 0 fur. 110 yds. or 30030 yards. 34. 132000000 feet. 35. 2560 ns. or 640 qs. 36. 5000 qrs. or 1250 yards. 37. 6396 yds. 2 qrs. 38. 9302 French ells, 40. 51 brls. 2 gals. 2 pks. 1 gal. 61. 2126° 11' 54". inches. 66. 582 acr. 1 rood 3 p. 29 yds. 8 ft. 67. 259200 cub. in. 75. 691 lbs. 10 avoirdupois. oz. 76. 822 lbs. 184 oz. av. 77. 1234 lbs. 4 oz. av. 78. 58 lbs. 4 oz. troy. 79. 122 lbs. 33 oz. troy. 80. 2 lbs. 8 oz. av. 84. 108 sq. yds. 8 sq. 85. 446 acres 1 rood. climb; bravado, a boast, from the Spanish bravata, or the French bravade, a boastful threat. "What can be more strange than that we should, within two months, have won one town of importance by scalade, battered another, and overthrown great forces in the field?"-Bacon. Age, from the Latin termination ago, as in imago (an image), through the Spanish azgo, and the French age (as in avantage, an advantage): it denotes a state of being. "That to the utmost of our ability, we ought to repair any damage we have done to others is self-evident."-Beattie, "Moral Science." The term average is from the low Latin averagium (from the Latin verb habeo, I have), which denoted a duty or service paid primarily in labour by the tenant to the lord, by means of his beasts, and carriages, and implements of husbandry, and thus becoming in a secondary sense a sort of tax on movable property. From average, and the custom it denotes, come avercorne and averpenny in old legal documents. "Whether the small town of Birmingham alone doth not upon an average circulate every week, one way or other, to the value of £50,000." -Berkeley, "Querist.” Al, from the Latin al, as in animal, an animal, and animalis, belonging to an animal. Al in Latin indicates personality; thus, anima is life, and animal one who possesses life. Al, from alis, signifies belonging to. "Mr. Monkhouse happening one day to pull a flower from a tree which grew in one of their sepulchral inclosures, an Indian, whose jealousy had probably been upon the watch, came suddenly behind him and struck him."-Cook, "First Voyage." An, a suffix from the Latin adjective form anus: as humanus, human, pertaining to a man; from humanus comes also human. 92. 8375 imp. kind, like a man, in which you see an in another form. From cubic feet. Able, from the Gothic abal, strength, found in the Latin habilis, "Where all life dies, death lives, and nature breeds, Milton, "Paradise Lost." (odo), coming into the English through the French, the 1 the Spanish, gives us such words as brocade, emk; comrade, from the French camarade, or the erata, through the Latin camera, a chaber; scalade, Latin scala, a ladder, or from the Spanish escalar, to the termination of these Latin adjectives in the neuter plural ana is derived, the once favourite ana; as in Johnsoniana, the things of Johnson, that is, his lighter sayings and doings, what is sometimes called table-talk, from the German tisch-reden. Ance or ancy, a substantive suffix from the Latin anția, as in constantia, constancy; it denotes a condition; in constancy, the condition of being constant or firm. Ance sometimes passes into ence, as in condolence, the state of grieving (Latin, doleo, I grieve) with (con) another. "She had so steadfast countenance, So noble porte and maintenance."-Chaucer. Ant and ent are connected with the Latin participles in ans and ens, as amans, loving; docens, teaching, etc. Adjectives ending in ant sometimes come to us through the French, as in dormant, sleeping; the present participle of the Latin verb dormio, I sleep, being dormiens, and of the French verb dormir, dormant. “Logicians distinguish two kinds of operations of the mind; the first kind produces no effect without the mind; the last does. The first they call immanent acts, the second transitive." Ar from the Latin substantive ending in ar, as calcar, a spur; and the Latin adjective ending in aris, as regulāris (Latin, regula, a rule), according to rule, regular. The ar having once become a recognised termination in English, was added to words of Latin origin, as similar (similis, like, from the Latin simia, an ape; the likeness of the ape to man being such as to cause the same word to be applied to both ape and likeness; so we use to ape, that is, to imitate). "You have heard how first they began of laymen onely, leading a straiter life from the society of other persons, who, then following the rule of S. Bennet (Benedict), were called regulars and votaries."-For. been spoken of under the prefixes. Archy, a Greek termination, signifying chief, government, has Ard (connected with the German art, kind, manner), a substantive termination, signifies a permanent state; as, sluggard, one who is in the habit of being sluggish; drunkard, one whose habitual state is intoxication: a good man may be once drunk, but a good man cannot be a drunkard. The dull, in dullard, is allied to the Dutch dol, mad, or dolen, to wander or rave, or to the German toll, mad. "But would I bee a poet if I might, To rub my browes three days and wake three nights, Bishop Hall, Ary, from Latin adjective termination arius, as found in auxiliarius, (Latin, auxilium, aid), auxiliary, tributary. This same arius gave rise to our termination in arious, as in gregarious (Latin, grex, a flock), flocking together. From Latin words ending in arius, we have statuary (ars statuaria); lapidary (Latin, lapis, a stone), a (precious) stone-cutter; aviary, a place for keeping birds (Latin, avis, a bird). Aster, as in poetaster, which comes immediately from the French poetastre, a bad poet, is found in the Italian astro, a termination denoting contempt. The aster in disaster, a calamity, has nothing to do with the suffix. Disaster seems to be from dis and the Greek aστpov (as'-tron), or Latin astrum, a star, and so signifies an ill-starred condition. Ate is a verbal (derived from a verb) termination, the origin of which is found in the Latin passive participle, as congregatus; hence the verb to congregate. "The infuriate hill shoots forth the pillared flame.” Thomson, Summer." 66 Ated, ted, or ed, are the terminations of the passive participle in English, equivalent to the same Latin participle ending in atus; thus the Latin communicatus is in English communicated. In the same way we have adapted, devolved, affixed, imputed, etc. Participles in ed become adjectives by suppressing the d, as desolated becomes desolate. Ce is an English representative of the Latin termination in tia, as gratio, favour, grace. Cy is sometimes used instead of ce: for example, clementia, clemency; that is, mercy. In the older forms of the language words ending in cy were spelt cie. These nouns denote the abstract quality; thus prudens means prudent, as a prudent man; but prudentia means prudence, in the abstract; that is, the quality is considered apart from any subject. "But even that mightye lone (love) of his great clemencle, Hath given me grace at last to judge the truth from heresie." Gascoigne. Ch, a Saxon termination found in church, ditch, which, etc., and of old pronounced as a guttural, or at leas like k, as in the Scotch whilk, or quhilk, and the German ch or 2h, as ich (ick), I; doch, yet; thus we have the Latin sic, and the English such; the Scotch mickle, and the English much; the Scotch kirk, German kirche, and the English church. Ditch or dike is a thing that men produce by digging. The words run thus, dig, dike, ditch. Another form of dike and ditch is digue. "The people ran into so great despair that in Zeland they gave over working at their digues, suffering the sea to gain every tide upon the country."-Sir W. Temple. Cle or le, a diminutive, formed after the manner of the Latin diminutive termination culus, masculine, and cula, feminine: for example, homunculus, a little man; a manikin; regulus (Latin, rex, a king), a little king; matercula, a little mother. The ending appears in particle, a little part; pellicle (Latin, pellis, skin), a little skin; in muscle (musculus a little mouse), so called in reference to its appearance under the skin. de Dom, a suffix, found as a noun in the Latin and the Saxon, as well as the English; as in domus, a house; dominus, master; halidom, holiness; kingdom, the jurisdiction of a king. Dom is found also in the German thum; as reichthum, riches. Dom denotes power, authority, office. It is the same word that we have in doom; as doom's-day, the day of judgment. It oceurs in the Saxon dom-boc, doom-book. "For neither the Fadir jugith ony man, but hath gouan (given) eche dome to the sone."-Wicliff's "Testament," John v. 22. "And looke, when I am king, clayme thou of me the earldome of Hereford."-Shakespeare, "Richard III." Ee, a termination of Gallic origin, found in refugee, debauchee, originated in an effort to represent in English the vocal force of the French accented e; as, debauché, refugié. The French word is the passive participle. Hence, frequently the words ending in ee have a passive sense: a trustee is one who is trusted by a trustor or truster; that is, one who trusts. It is the same with feoffer and feoffee. "And though his majesty came to them by descent, yet it was but in nature of the heire of a feofje in trust, for the use and service of the kingdom."-Prynne. El, le, a suffix, denoting an instrument; as, shovel, from to shove; stopple, from to stop; needle, from the Dutch naad, a seam; in Anglo-Saxon, nædel; German, nadel, doubtless allied to the Anglo-Saxon nagel, the German nagel, and the English nail. Damsel, a young woman, is an abridged form of the French demoiselle, which of old denoted a daughter of noble parents: the transition of demoiselle into damsel may be seen in the rendering of the word by English versions of different ages; as Wicliff (1380), a damysel; Tyndale (1534), a damsell; Cranmer (1539), a damsell; the Authorised (1611), a damosell. The Greek word, which properly denotes a female servant, is translated by the Geneva version (1557), a mayde (maid); and by the Rheims version (1582), one vvenche (wench). (Matt. xxvi. 69.) En, a suffix, by which nouns are converted into adjectives, and adjectives into verbs; as brass, brazen; white, to whiten. In the same way, we have long, length, lengthen; dark, darken; soft, soften; leather, leathern; south, southern, and southron. En forms also one ending of passive participles; as weave, wove, It is found in some nouns as their plural woven; shear, shorn. termination; as ox, oxen. Of old, en and n formed the plural of the present tense of verbs, representing the Anglo-Saxon don. I quote the words of Ben Jonson : End, a Saxon termination which denotes an agent; as wegferend, a wayfarer; friend, in Saxon freond; German, freund; probably connected with the verb to free; that is, to make free; and to free may have its source in the more general import of the term-namely, to love, to woo; so that a friend is one who loves, and therefore frees another. Friend and friendly, in the older forms of the language, signified lover and loving. "The true faith, whereever it is, worketh and frameth the heart to friendlike dispositions unto God, and brings forth friendlike carriage in the life towards God."-Goodwin. Ad Ent (sometimes ant, as in "church militant"), an adjective termination, the origin of which is found in both the Saxon and the Latin; as, writend, writing; absens (absentis), absent. jectives ending in ent denote a present condition-e.g., different; or a quality considered concretely; that is, in relation to some subject. "Lord God, how frequente and famyliar a thynge with euery (every) estate and degree throughout Christendom, is this reverent othe (oath) on the Gospills of Christ."-Sir T. Elyot. Er (in the forms er, r, re). By comparing the Anglo-Saxon writere, the Latin scriptor (scribo, I write), and the English writer, we find that the termination er, or, denotes an agent. So in Saxon sædere, a sower; plegere, a player; and in Latin, amator, a lover; doctor, a teacher. The endings ere in Saxon, or in Latin, and er in English, are very common. You must, however, in following analogy, use words so formed with judgment and taste. Having an active signification, they are generally formed from verbs, thus: to mend, a mender; to think, a thinker; to build, a builder. But it is not from every verb that such nouns can be properly formed. We can say, to better, but not a betterer; yet a bettering has some authority. Proper names arise from these nouns-e.g., Mr. Barker, Mr. Tyler, Mr. Hellier, Mr. Fisher. The suffix er also forms the comparative in adjectives; as, green, greener. It is, too, found in some verbs of Gallic origin; as in encounter (encontre, a meeting); cover (couvrir, to cover). LESSONS IN DRAWING.-XV. WE now propose to direct the attention of our pupils to the principles of light and shade in trees, or what is artistically termed "massing in the foliage," and introduce some illustrations. Figs. 104 and 105 represent the same subject. The arrangement and outline of the trunk, branches, and foliage must be first made, as in Fig. 104, and we beg the pupil especially to remember that this must be his mode of pro *Friendlike, abbreviated into friendly; in German it is freun Compare what is said before on the termination ch. شاسته زیت کا cedure in all cases. We have frequently noticed beginners, in their first attempts to draw trees, start off with that which they call "the shading," regardless of the fact that trees have trunks and stems upon which the foliage depends, and equally so as to the importance of the lights, which vary as much as the trees themselves; these lights must be so managed that all the half tints and darker parts must be made subservient to them. A proper acquaintance with the growth of the stems will assist us in understanding the disposition of the lights, as by them we must give the individual character of the tree: in other words-the lights, as they fall upon the foliage, are in their extent governed by that upon which the foliage depends, that is, the stems. We shall return to this again; in the meantime we will place before the pupil an example which practically has more to do with detail, than with the broader manner we shall enter upon in the next lesson. Our object in this arrangement is. with a view of showing him the necessity of making himself capable, by this additional example, of entering into details, previous to the practice of the general distribution of light and shade, which, it will be our endeavour to show, must afterwards receive those characteristic details which belong to trees in particular. Fig. 107 is the finished drawing of a fir-tree, whilst Fig. 106 represents the method we recommend in copying it. The sharp angular manner of execution will be noticed in contradistinction to the horizontal and broader method of the oak, or the drooping and almost perpendicular style of the willow. These should be copied on a larger scale, as a broader and more effective drawing will be obtained thereby than if it be done on too diminutive a scale; and, besides, the details will be better understood, and there will be also greater opportunity for entering fully into all minor particulars, which, if carefully observed, without descending to littleness of manner, will have so much influence upon the whole. As there is in many respects a close affinity between foregrounds and trees, it might be advisable at this stage to enter somewhat upon the treatment of foregrounds, preparatory to the remaining instruc tions we propose to give upon trees. Shrubberies, scattered bushes over grown with brambles and honeysuckle, very properly belong to foregrounds; their mixed character, being neither trees nor plants, claim most of the remarks we shall have to make upon both. For studies for foregrounds, nature will be our greatest help and resource, affording at all times an endless variety of subjects, which can be more con veniently obtained than the larger specimens of vegetation. It is an excellent practice, and one that is very common amongst artists, to collect |