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the Faith, and if it has been speciously insinuated that her motives in the contest were not always disinterested, at least it is impossible to dispute either her zeal in the righteous cause, or the power and success with which she pleaded it*, or the great probability that, without such advocacy so steadily pursued through so long and hopeless a period, the complete emancipation of the lowest classes would have been accomplished much later, perhaps not wholly accomplished even at this moment. Fifthly— The same spirit which was so well directed to improve the internal fabric of society turned itself also to the prevention of civil outrage and even of international warfare. In this attempt, indeed, it had not equal success, since it had to contend with the most intractable of human passions; but the pages even of profane history abound with proofs of the pacific policy and interpositions of the Church: nor were they entirely suspended even after the fatal moment, when it engaged as a party in the temporal affairs of Europe, and so frequently found its own policy and strength and triumph. in the discord, devastation, and misery of its neighbours. Lastly-From considerations which are more immediately connected with the happiness of mankind, we may descend to mention a theme of praise which is seldom withheld from the Church by any description of historians-that of having preserved many valuable monuments of ancient genius; and also of having nourished, even in the worst times, such sort of literary instruction and acquirement as was then perhaps attainable. It is true that these advantages were not generally diffused among the people; that little desire was evinced by the Clergy to communicate such knowledge, or by the Laity to share in it: still was it a possession useful, as well as honourable, to those who cherished and maintained it, and through them, in some degree, to their fellow-subjects. Some languid rays it must have reflected even at the moment upon the surface of society; at least it was preserved as a certain pledge of future improvement, as an inviolable and everlasting treasure, consecrated to the brighter destinies of ages to come.

* Il y en a une preuve irrécusable: la plupart des formules d'affranchissement, à diverses époques, se fondent sur un motif religieux; c'est au nom des idées religieuses, des espérances de l'avenir, de l'égalité religieuse des hommes, que l'affranchissement est presque toujours prononcé.-Guizot, Hist. Générale, Leçon VI.

END OF PART II.

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO THAT OF

POPE GREGORY VII. 814-1085.

CHAPTER XIV.-On the Government and Projects of the Church during the Ninth and Tenth Centuries.

Division of the Subject into Three Parts. (I.) Independence of Papal Election-Original Law and Practice-First Violation-Posterity of Charlemagne-Charles the Bald-Otho the Great-Henry III.-Alterations under Nicholas II.-Reflections. (II.) Encroachment of Ecclesiastical on Civil Authority-Indistinct Limits of Temporal and Spiritual Power-Till the time of CharlemagneAfter that time-Influence of Feudal System-Kind of Authority conferred by it on the ClergyMilitary Service-of Church Vassals-of Clergy-latter forbidden by Charlemagne-Superstitious Methods of Trial-by Hot Iron-the Cross-the Eucharist-Political Offices of the ClergyInfluence from Intellectual Superiority-Plunder of Church Property-Lay ImpropriatorsAdvocates-Louis le Débonnaire-his Penance-Council at Paris in 820-Charles the Bald-Council of Aix la Chapelle-Lothaire, King of Lorraine-his Excommunication-Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims-his Conduct on two occasions-Charles the Bald accepts the Empire from the PopeGeneral Reflections-Robert, King of France-his Excommunication and Submission-Episcopal distinct from Papal Encroachment. (III.) Internal Usurpation of the Roman See-Its Original Dignity-Metropolitan Privileges-Appellant Jurisdiction of Pope-The False Decretals-Contest between Gregory IV. and the French Bishops-between Adrian II. and Hincmar-Character of Hincmar-Consequence of regular Appeals to the Pope-Vicars of the Roman See-Exemption of Monasteries from Episcopal Superintendence-Remarks.

CHAPTER XV.-On the Opinions, Literature, Discipline, and
External Fortunes of the Church.

(I.) On the Eucharist-Original Opinions of the Church-Doctrine of Paschasius Radbert-Combated by Ratram and John Scotus-Conclusion of the Controversy-Predestination-Opinions and Persecution of Gotteschalcus-Millennarianism in the Tenth Century-its strange and general Effect. (II.) Literature-Rabanus Maurus, John Scotus, Alfred-its Progress among the Saracens -Spain-South of Italy-France-Rome-Pope Sylvester II. (III.) Discipline-Conduct of Charlemagne and his Successors-St. Benedict of Aniane. Institution of Canons Regular-Episcopal election-Translations of Bishops prohibited. Pope Stephen VI.-Claudius Bishop of Turin -Penitential System. (IV.) Conversion of the North of Europe-of Denmark, Sweden, Russiaof Poland and Hungary-how accomplished and to what Extent-The Normans-The Turks.

CHAPTER XVI.-The Life of Gregory VII.

DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT.-Section I. From Leo IX. to the Accession of Gregory. Section II. The Pontificate of Gregory. Section III. Controversy respecting Transubstantiation and Establishment of the Latin Liturgy. SECTION I.-Pope Leo IX.-Early History of Hildebrand-Succession of Victor II.-of Stephen IX. of Nicholas II.-his Measure respecting Papal Election-the College of Cardinals-imperfection of that Measure-Subsequent and final Regulation-Inconveniences of popular SuffrageRestriction of the Imperial Right of Confirmation-Homage of Robert Guiscard and the Normans -Dissensions on the Death of Nicholas-Succession of Alexander II.-actual Supremacy of Hildebrand-Measures taken during that Pontificate-Alexander is succeeded by Hildebrand, under the title of Gregory VII.

SECTION II.-Gregory's First Council-its two objects-to prevent (1.) Marriage or Concubinage of the Clergy-(2.) Simoniacal Sale of Benefices-On the Celibacy of the Clergy-why encouraged by Popes-Leo IX.-Severity and Consequence of Gregory's Edict-Original Method of appointment to Benefices-Usurpations of Princes-how abused-the Question of Investiture-Explained-Pretext for Royal Encroachments-Original form of Consecration by the King and Crown-Right usurped by Otho-State of the Question at the Accession of Gregory-Conduct of Henry-further measures of the Pope-Indifference of Henry-Summoned before a Council at Rome-Council of Worms-Excommunication of the Emperor and Absolution of his Subjects from their Allegiance-Consequence of this Edict-Dissensions in Germany-how suspendedHenry does Penance at Canossa-restored to the Communion of the Church-again takes the field-Rodolphus declared Emperor-Gregory's Neutrality-Remarks on the course of Gregory's Measures-Universality of his temporal Claims-his probable project-Considerations in excuse of his Schemes-partial admission of his Claims-Ground on which he founded them-power to bind and to loose-Means by which he supported them-Excommunication-Interdict-Legates à Latere-Alliance with Matilda-his Norman allies German Rebels-Internal Administration -Effect of his rigorous Measures of Reform-his grand scheme of Supremacy within the Church -False Decretals-Power conferred by them on the Pope-brought into action by Gregory-Appeals to Pope-Generally encouraged and practised-their pernicious Effects-Gregory's Double Scheme of Universal Dominion--Return to Narrative-Clement III. anti-Pope-Death of Rodol phus-Henry twice repulsed from before Rome-finally succeeds-his Coronation by Clementthe Normans restore Gregory-he follows them to Salerno and there dies-his historical importance-his Character-Public-his grand principle in the Administration of the Church-Private -as to Morality-as to Religion.

SECTION III.-(I.) Controversy respecting Transubstantiation-suspended in the Ninth, renewed in the Eleventh Century-Character of Berenger-Council of Leo IX.-of Victor II. at Tours in 1054-Condemnation and conduct of Berenger-Council of Nicholas II.-repeated Retractation and Relapse of Berenger-Alexander II.-Council at Rome under Gregory VII.-Extent of the Concession then required from Berenger-further Requisition of the Bishops-a Second Council assembled-Conduct of Gregory-Berenger again solemnly assents to the Catholic Doctrine, and again returns to his own-his old Age, Remorse, and Death-Remarks on his Conduct-on the Moderation of Gregory. (2.) Latin Liturgy-Gradual Disuse of Latin Language throughout Europe-Adoption of Gothic Missal in Spain-Alfonso proposes to substitute the Roman-Decision by the Judgment of God-by Combat-by Fire-doubtful Result-final Adoption of the Latin Liturgy-Its introduction among the Bohemians by Gregory-Motives of the Popes-other instances of Liturgies not performed in the Vulgar Tongue-Usage of the early Christian Church.

CHAPTER XIV.

On the Government and Projects of the Church during the Ninth and Tenth Centuries.

THAT We may avoid the confusion usually attending the compression of a long series of incidents, we shall here endeavour to distinguish the points which chiefly claim our notice, rather than follow chronologically the course of events; and though it may not be possible, nor even desirable, to prevent the occasional encroachments of subjects in some respects similar, yet in others very different, we shall not allow it to perplex our narrative. It is an obscure and melancholy region into which we now enter; but it is not altogether destitute of interest and instruction, since we can discern, through the ambiguous twilight, those misshapen masses and disorderly elements out of which the fabric of Papal despotism presently arose, and even trace the irregular progress of that stupendous structure. We shall best attain this end by giving a separate consideration to three subjects, which will be found to include the whole ecclesiastical policy of the ninth and tenth centuries. Other matters relating to that period, and possessing perhaps even greater general importance, will be treated in the next chapter; but at present we shall confine our inquiry to the following objects:-I. The endeavours of the Popes to free their own election from Imperial interference of every description, whether to nominate or to confirm. II. The efforts of the Church to usurp dominion over the Western empire; and generally to advance the spiritual as loftier and more legitimate than the highest temporal authority. III. The exertions of the See of Rome to subdue to itself the ecclesiastical body, and thus to establish a despotism within the Church. In the two first of these objects we may regard the Church as waging for the most part an external warfare; the last occasioned her intestine or domestic struggles; and the examination of them will necessarily lead to some mention of the peculiarities introduced by the feudal system; of its influence on the manners, morals, and property of the clergy.

I. On the independency of Papal election. The original law and practice in this matter had passed, with some variations but little lasting alteration, through the succession both of the Greek and barbarian sovereigns of Rome, from the time of Constantine to that of Charlemagne, and that Prince also transmitted it unchanged to his posterity. It was this-that the Pope should be elected by the priests, nobles, and people of Rome, but that he should not be consecrated without the consent of the Emperor. This arrangement was found, for above eight centuries, to be consistent with the dignity of the Roman Bishop, and it was not till his spiritual pride had been inflated by temporal power, that it was discovered to be doubly objectionable-it was no longer to be endured, either that laymen should interfere in the election of the Pope, or the Emperor in his consecration. Both these restraints became offensive to the lofty principles of ecclesiastical independence; but the latter was that which it was first attempted to remove.

Charlemagne was succeeded by his son Lewis, commonly called the Meek, a feeble and superstitious monarch; and of these defects both Stephen V.* and Pascal I. so far availed themselves, as to exercise the

Generally called Stephen IV. See Baron. ann. 816, s. 96.

pontifical functions without awaiting his confirmation. But when Eugene II. would have followed their example, Lothaire, who was associated to the empire, complained of the usurpation and resumed the Imperial right. Lewis died in 840, and was succeeded on the throne of France by Charles the Bald.

That Prince reigned for thirty-seven years with scarcely greater vigour than his predecessor; but his reign is on several accounts important in the history of Popery, and chiefly on the following. Two years before his death the Imperial throne became vacant. Charles was ambitious to possess it; he went to Rome, accepted it at the hands of John VIII.; and then, that he might make a worthy return for this office, he released the See from the necessity of Imperial consent to the consecration of its Bishop. The claims which were derived by subsequent Popes from John's assumed donation of the empire will be mentioned hereafter, and it will appear on how slight a ground they rested; but the interference of the Emperor in papal elections was on this occasion directly and unequivocally withdrawn. Neither the interests nor the honour of the See gained any thing by its independence. From that time (the event took place in 875) till 960, the most disgraceful confusion prevailed in the elections, and clearly proved that the restraint heretofore imposed by civil superintendence, had been salutary; and if the emperors during that stormy period did not reclaim their former right, we should rather attribute the neglect to their weakness than to their acknowledged cession of it. For in the year 960, Otho the Great, on the invitation of John XII., resumed the Imperial authority in Italy, and exercised, as long as he lived, the most arbitrary discretion in the election, and even appointment, of the Pontiff. He presently degraded John, and substituted in his place Leo VIII.; and under that Pope (or anti-Pope-for it is disputed) a Lateran council held in 964, which conferred on Otho and all his successors not merely the kingdom of Italy, but the regulation of the Holy See and the arbitrary election of its bishops. And for the guidance of their successors, Otho left an edict prohibiting the election of any Pope without the previoust knowledge and consent of the emperor, which was enforced during the next eighty years by all who possessed the power to do so. But in the century following, in the year 1047, we observe that the same right was once more conceded to an emperor, Henry III.; and on this occasion an artful distinction was drawn by the Italians, which led, no doubt, to the ultimate independence of election: the privilege of nominating the Pope was granted to Henry personally, not to the throne.

was

This important advantage was followed almost immediately by another of still greater consequence. Nicholas II., under the direction of Hildebrand, found means to restore the original principle of election, modified as follows: the right of appointment was vested in the College of cardinals, with the consent of the people, and the approbation of the emperor. But the last mentioned restriction was expressly understood to extend only to the emperor of the time being, and to such of his successors as should personally obtain the privilege. This grand measure was accomplished in a council held at Rome in 1059, fourteen years before the accession of Gregory VII.; and so the matter rested, when he took possession of the chair.

We observe from this short account, that, after an interrupted struggle

* Giannone, Stor. Nap., lib. viii., cap. vi.

He had occasion to exert it three times.

† Mosheim, Cent. x., p. ii., c. ii,

See below, chap. xvi.

of two hundred and fifty years, an absolute independence of election was not yet confessedly effected. The contest had fluctuated very considerably; the first advantages were entirely on the side of the Pope; in fact, at the death of Charles the Bald, the victory seemed perfectly secure : and the century which followed was so clouded by the mutual dissensions of the princes; it was marked by such positive weakness in their states, such vices in their personal character and internal administration, as to be in the highest degree favourable to the confirmation and extension of papal privileges. Why then was it, that the privilege in question was not at that time extended nor even permanently confirmed? Why was it even that the next interference of the emperor took place at the solicitation of a Pope? Chiefly because the removal of Imperial superintendence had thrown the election entirely into the hands of an unprincipled nobility*, an intriguing clergy, and a venal populace, whose united fraud and violence usually favoured the most flagitious candidate, and promoted his success by means the most shameful. And, therefore, through this lawless period we read of Popes tumultuously chosen and hastily deposed; hurried from the monastery to the chair, from the chair to prison or to death. Their reigns were usually short and wasted in fruitless endeavours to prolong them; their sacred duties were forgotten or despised, and their personal characters were even more detestable than those of the princes their contemporaries. Further, we may observe, that when the Church began to recover from the delirium of the tenth century; when one great man did at length arise within it, Hildebrand, the future Gregory, his influence was immediately exerted, not only against Imperial interference to confirm, but against popular licence to elect: for he had learnt from long and late experience, that no scheme for the universal extension of Papal authority could be made effective, until the Popes themselves were secured from the capricious insolence of a domestic tyrant. If things had not been thus-if Papal elections had been regularly and conscientiously conducted when the civil governments of Europe were at the lowest point of contentious and stupid imbecility—the æra of Pontifical despotism would have been anticipated by nearly three centuries, and the empire of opinion would have been more oppressive and more lasting, as the age was more deeply immersed in ignorance and barbarism.

From the deposition of the last Carlovingian king to the reign of Otho the Great, (a space of nearly fifty years,) the authority of the princes who held the imperial title was always vacillating and contested. In the mean time the city of Rome was no part of the kingdom of Italy, but depended on the imperial crown only; so that during the vacancy of the empire it recovered its independence, and thus fell under the turbulent oligarchy of its own nobles. These provided the candidates for the pontifical throne; and whosoever among them succeeded in obtaining it, secured, by means of the church revenues, a great preponderance over all the others, and became as it were the chiefs of the republic. (See Sismondi, Repub. Ital. chap. iii.; to whose work we are compelled to refer the reader for the few facts which are ascertained respecting the revolutions of the Roman Government during this period.) For the further degradation of the Roman See the influence of female arts and charms was triumphantly exerted. Jamais les femmes n'eurent autant de crédit sur aucun gouvernement que celles de Rome en obtinrent, dans le dixième siècle, sur celui de leur patrie. Or auroit dit que la beauté avoit succédé a tous les droits de l'empire.' The names and scandals of Theodora and Marozia are distinguished in the ecclesiastical annals of the tenth century. In the rapid succession of popes, those most marked by disgrace or misfortune may have been Leo V., John X., John XI., John XII., Benedict VI., John XIV.; but to pursue the details of their history would be alike painful and unprofitable: for their crimes would teach us no lessons, and even their sufferings would scarcely raise our compassion.

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