the animals are rendered more visible, so Sexual colors, due to volun Fourthly. Typical colors, with regard to which none of the above causes seem to exist, but which seem to depend upon peculiar elements or chemical compounds in the soil, water, or atmosphere, or upon special organic substances in the vegetation of the locality which they inhabit. or yellow, in the form of either flower or fruit, have been found, while since even in the carboniferous period traces of insect life exist, these insects must have sought their food in the flowerless plants then living. Such insects would have carried the fertilizing pollen from plant to plant, forming a more sure method of impregnation than the wind, and the plants which were the most attractive to insects would gain an advantage in the general competition for place on the earth's surface; thus insect-fertilized plants would gradually gain ground on Thus in the first three of these groups the anemophilous division, not only on the perception of color by animals is this account, but also because the seedlooked upon by Mr. Wallace as an un-lings due to such cross fertilization are deniable fact, the apparent use of the the more vigorous. The brilliantly colcolor in the animals which belong to ored flowers being most easily perceived them being to protect them from others, would be more likely to be fertilized by to warn others, or to attract others. the insects, and the growth of large colPlants also are shown by Mr. Wallace ored petals might be thus explained, to have acquired some of their colors while their color also renders the exist by the power of attracting insects which ence of a color-sense most probable in such colors give them, the visits of such the insects by which they were fertilinsects being necessary for their fertili-ized. This color-perception would again a point which has been brought become more and more perfect in the out more fully by Sprengel, Darwin, insects, owing to the advantage which Müller, Hildebrand, Delpino, and other their improved color-sense would give observers. them in their search for food. Mr. Grant Allen also points out that the color perception, which has been shown to exist now in many insects, such as bees,* wasps, ants, and others, would have been inherited from such ancestors, and the fact that insect-fertilized flowers are, as a rule, large, brilliant, and colored, while those which are wind-fertilized are small, green, and inconspicuous, affords another proof of the existence of such color-perception. zation The subject of the perception of colors or of the color-sense was very ably discussed by Mr. Grant Allen, in a work on the color-sense published in 1879. After pointing out in what color-perception consists, and how it would seem to be the special function of the cones of the retina, since these are wholly wanting in nocturnal animals, and are most thickly massed near the central part of the retina where color-perception is most acute, he discusses the history of the appearance of color, and of its first perception. Mentioning that, as Brongniart stated, three periods of geological vegetation may be supposed to have existed, he points out that these, which are called "the age of acrogens or ferns, the age of gymnosperms or conifers, and the age of angiosperms or true-seeding plants," might be termed the age of flowerless plants, the age of anemophilous or wind-fertilized flowering plants, and the age of entomophilous or insect-fertilized flowering plants, the former flowers being those in which the pollen of the male flower is wafted to the stigma of the female flower by means of the wind, whereas in the latter it would be carried there by insects. Thus it was that during long geological ages no signs of red, orange, blue, LIVING AGE. VOL. XXXVIII. 1947 Supposing, again, the power of perceiv*My brother, Sir John Lubbock, has not only shown experimentally what had until then been a matter of inference, that ants, bees, and wasps can distinguish have a decided preference for blue. colors, but in the case of bees has proved that they Sir It is perhaps even more interesting that ants, and only to perceive all the colors that we can see, but also some other articulate animals (daphnias), appear not the ultra-violet rays, which are invisible to us. John Lubbock observes (Trans. Linn. Soc., 1881, p. 1377) that "as every ray of homogeneous light which we can perceive at all appears to us as a distinct color, it seems probable that these ultra-violet rays must make themselves apparent to the ants as a distinct and separate color (of which we can form no idea), but as unlike the rest as red is from yellow, or green from violet. The question also arises whether white light to these insects would differ from our white light in containing this additional color. At any rate, as few of the colors in nature are pure colors, but almost all lengths, and as in such cases a visible resultant would arise from the combination of rays of different wavebe composed not only of the rays which we see, but of these and the ultra-violet, it would appear that the colors of objects, and the general aspect of nature, must present to them a very different appearance from what they do to us." existence, and accepting in toto the theory of evolution, he believes the earliest animal eyes to have been cognizant of light and its negation only; the discrimination of form he believes to have followed, and lastly the perception of color. Color-perception, first aroused in insects by the hues of flowers, and in simple marine animals by the animal organisms around them, he believes to have been handed down from the latter to fishes and reptiles, and more remotely to birds and mammals; that quadrumanous animals being frugivorous possess color-sense in a high degree; while man, the supposed descendant of these fruit-eating quadrumana, possesses very perfect color-perception, direct investigations showing all existing men to have like color-perceptions, while history shows the same to be true of all earlier races. ing color to be similarly inherited by every vertebrate animal, he expresses his belief that man is the descendant of an arboreal quadrumanous animal of frugivorous habits, who shared, like other vertebrates, the power of perceiving color. He points out that man now possesses a very perfect color-sense, equally pronounced in all varieties of the species, from the highest to the lowest. That the latter point is true is proved not only by the works of travellers and others respecting modern savages, but by information received from missionaries, government officials, and others living among uncivilized races. That the color-sense existed, seemingly in an equally developed condition, in ancient times is rendered probable by the character of the ancient monuments in Egypt, Assyria, and other parts. He also points out the traces of color-perception which exist in the Old Testament. In the very first chapter of Genesis we hear of the green herb (v. 30). Isaac partook of red pottage (Gen. xxv. 30). Joseph had a coat of many colors; the Israelites in the desert were enjoined to wear "ribands of blue" (Numb. xv. 38). Rahab agrees with the spies to hang out scarlet thread as a signal. The curtains of the tabernacle were to be made of "fine twined linen, and blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fringed with loops of blue "red on the other, being placed before the (Exod. xxvi. 1). The veil was to be of the same three colors (Exod. xxvi. 31), as were the hangings for the door (Exod. xxvi. 36) and the gate of the court (Exod. xxvii. 16). The breastplate of the priest (Exod. xxviii. 15) was to be "of gold, of blue, of purple, and of scarlet." In Solomon's temple also the veil was to be "of blue, and purple, and crimson, and fine linen" (2 Chron. iii. 14). In these passages, though the exact meaning of the Hebrew words used may not be given in the English translation, the difference seems to be but slight, the words translated "blue, and purple, and scarlet" being perhaps more correctly rendered "blue purple, red purple, and crimson." I would allude, lastly, to a paper read at the Anthropological Society of Berlin by Dr. Rabl Rückhard, in 1880, upon the historical development of the color sense. From this we learn that Fridhiof Holmgren, the Swedish physiologist, suggested a few years ago a new plan of testing color-perception, namely, by means of variously colored wools. A skein of wool having a certain color, as, for instance, light green on the one hand, or person whose perception is to be tested, he is desired to choose from among a large number of variously colored wools those which seem to him to be of the same color. Should the perception of color not be in a developed condition, or should color-blindness exist, colors are indicated as similar which to those with good color-perception appear of different hues. Thus, for instance, red and green, or blue and grey, might be regarded as of the same color, whilst the ordinary eye would recognize their dissimilarity. By such means it was found that the inhab itants of the polar regions, Nubians, and other uncivilized races, had a highly developed color-sense; that in some cases with few, vague, and undecided names for color, good color-perception existed: it does not therefore follow that, because the vocabulary of any race is limited, their perceptions must necessarily be the same. Hugo Magnus, mainly owing to these facts, acknowledged that the conclusions which he had previously deduced were not borne out by actual observations, and now lays down propositions which are more or less identical with those of Rück There are also indications that perception of color existed in the bronze and even in the stone age. Thus while colored ornaments and beads have been found in the Swiss lake dwellings which are supposed to have belonged to the bronze age, stones remarkable for their color seem to have been chosen in the stone age, not only for use, but also for ornament. Grant Allen, therefore, believes color-perception to have been developed at an earlier period of animal│hard, namely: Secondly. That perception of color and designation of color have nothing to do with each other, and that it is not safe to conclude from a deficiency of language that there exists a corresponding deficiency of perception. III. We have now to consider the value of the different arguments brought forward. It would be the simplest and best way to regard this, firstly, as to the develop ment of color-perception in man in historic or pre-historic times; and, secondly, as to its gradual and progressive development in the animal kingdom. Firstly, then, as to its development in man within historic times. Firstly. That all savage nations hith-gren among the Swedish Laplanders and erto tested have a sense of color which other inhabitants of the Arctic regions, does not differ from that of civilized na- the observations of Virchow and others tions. upon Nubians and Lapps, brought them to the same conclusion. There is, therefore, no deficiency in color-perception among the uncivilized tribes now living, as would probably be the case had the color-sense only been developed within the last few thousand years. The ancient monuments, again, of Mycenæ, Assyria, and Egypt show how developed the perception of color was when they were built. Indeed Mr. Owen Jones, in his "Grammar of Ornament," states his belief, with regard to Egyptian monuments, that the more ancient the monument the more perfect is the art. "Monuments," he states, "erected two thousand years before the Christian era are formed from the ruins of still more ancient and more perfect buildings. Whether the lotus and papyrus were taken as symbolizing the food for the body and mind, the feathers of rare birds, the palm-branch, or other type of ornament, that ornament, however conventionalized, is always found to be true. We are never shocked by any misapplication or violation of a natural principle." __He also says: "The architecture of the Egyptians is thoroughly polychromatic-they painted everything-therefore we have much to learn from them on this head. They dealt in flat tints, and used neither shade nor shadow, yet found no difficulty in poetically conveying to the mind the identity of the object they de sired to represent." The Assyrian style of painting was also supposed by him to be "the remains of a more perfect style of art yet to be discovered." Ancient monuments, therefore, lead to the same conclusion that the development of the color-sense cannot have occurred within the last three or four thousand years. The Old Testament Scriptures point to the same conclusion. It will have been observed that the arguments in favor of the gradual development of the color-sense within historic times are merely philological-that is, derived from the inexact and scanty way in which the names of colors are used in literature, and that observations among the uncivilized races now living show, as Hugo Magnus asserts, that the perception of color is not indicated by the variety of terms used to express it. The fact, therefore, that the names of colors are seldom, or inaccurately, used, does not prove the perception of color to be equally at fault. If, again, the perception of color has become so perfect within the last three or four thousand years, it would be natural to suppose that some uncivilized races would now be in the same condition as regards perception of color as men at the time when the Vedas or Zendavesta were written, who did not distinguish accurately between the different colors of the solar spectrum in their writings. Such, however, is not found to be the case, even the least civilized savages being found to have good color-percep There are, as has been said, indications tion. This was found to be the case by that color perception was also developed Mr. Grant Allen among a large number in man in pre-historic times. Colored of uncivilized races in Europe, Asia, Af- articles belonging to the bronze or stone rica, America, and the Pacific islands, age indicate the existence of a good colleading him to the conclusion that color-or-sense in those times, and so great an perception is absolutely identical through- authority as the late Dr. Rolleston was of out all branches of the human race. In opinion that the general character of the many cases, however, the color-terms used were few and incomplete, as, for instance, among the hill tribes of India, who, though they can distinguish the different colors, use the same term to express blue, green, and violet. Similarly the observations made at the request of Holm pre-historic remains could leave no doubt in the mind of an expert that primitive man possessed a considerable perception of color. Whatever, therefore, man has left behind tends to show that he has always possessed good color-perception. Secondly, as to the gradual and pro- | may be made with respect to the power of gressive development of color-perception distinguishing form, and there is no eviin the animal kingdom in which Mr. Grant dence to show that the improvement took Allen believes. place in one direction earlier than in the other. Neither does any proof exist that color-perception has been handed down with gradually increasing perfection from one species to another of the animal kingdom. If everything has reached its present form, its present condition, by evolution, color-perception must have done the same, but as yet there is no evidence to show how and through what stages this evolution took place. It was not my intention to discuss in this paper the general principle of evolution, which we owe to Darwin, and which has been so ably advocated by Spencer and others. I merely wished to point out that the colorsense, considered alone, has not yet been shown to have reached its present condition by means of such a process; that there is no proof that in mankind the col I would ask whether there is any proof that color-perception, being first aroused in insects by the hues of flowers, and in simple marine animals by the animal or ganisms of their environment, was handed down from the latter to fishes and reptiles, and so on to birds and mammals? What proofs does Mr. Grant Allen offer of this suggestion? Surely none. It is very possible that the insects living in the carboniferous period may have sought their food in the flowerless plants of that age, that the few colored plants-colored, perhaps, owing to their chemical composition -would offer special attraction to the insects by means of which they were fertilized, while at the same time the color-sense would become more perfect in these insects owing to the increased power of procuring food which such an advan-or-sense has improved either in historic or tage would give them. Similarly it may well be that color-perception became more perfect in simple marine animals on account of the advantage, whether protective, attractive, or other, which the color sense would give them. But can we deduce from these possibilities that the latter "handed down the power of perceiving color to fishes and reptiles, and more remotely to birds and mammals"? Surely all we can say is, that the colorsense in insects would become more and more perfect owing to their method of procuring food, and that the power of perceiving color, by means of which they do so, would be inherited by their insect descendants which are now living, while marine animals would similarly bequeath to their posterity the same power. IV. Lastly, then, to what conclusions does the consideration of this subject bring us? pre-historic times, and that the suggestion of its gradual development through the animal series, however probable such a view may be from general considerations, is founded on theory, and not on actual observation. MONTAGU LUBBOCK. From Temple Bar. EMILIA: AN EPISODE. CHAPTER I. THE scene is a little mountain inn, backed by dark, forest-clothed peaks, about which sullen clouds were gathering. Before the inn-door stood three horses with ladies' saddles, held by a guide; apart from these, a little farther off, was a light open carriage into which a horse was being harnessed. On a paved terrace adjoining the inn, and raised a few feet I would again repeat the question to be above the road, stood a gentleman in a solved which was mentioned at the begin- grey travelling suit, with an open letter in ning of this article, "Is there evidence his hand. He was a man of about thirty, to show that the power of perceiving color with a thoughtful, sensitive, rather worn has been gradually and progressively ac- face, and a brown moustache, which he quired?" Reasons, more or less con- smoothed slowly as he read. His was the clusive, have been given for believing carriage that was being made ready for that, as far as man is concerned, no such departure; awaiting it, he stood leaning gradual development can be shown to against the low parapet that ran round the have taken place. To what conclusion terrace and overhung the valley, absorbed must we come as to such development oc- in the perusal of his letter. Its contents curring in the animals of past ages? We were not new to him; the handwriting, have seen that the power of appreciating clear and decided, without needless flourcolor would become more and more per-ishes, was his own; the letter had been fect in those animals which live upon col-written hardly an hour ago in the little ored food; the same statement, however, inn-room, whilst some trout was being fried for his midday meal, and he was breast-pocket, with another glance at the sky, he crossed the terrace with leisurely steps, and re-entered the inn. "I think it always rains in the mountains," said a sweet, rather plaintive young voice: "I remember last year in Switzerland, don't you, Sophy? how it went on day after day-and it is just the same here. I don't mind for myself, but for you, Emmy, with your delicate throat, it bad." is very An inaudible reply from a speaker further within the room apparently; and then another voice was heard with decision in its tones, He turned into a little room on one side "Let us take it for granted once for all, Emilia," so the words ran "that of the passage which ran through the our marriage was a mistake; that, circum-house, that he might pay for the trout and stanced as we were, neither of us with a hour before. There was a minute's delay red wine off which he had lunched half an heart free, we did wrong in allowing ourselves to be influenced by others, inter- whilst the inn-keeper was counting out ested perhaps let us take all this for some change, and through an open door, granted, I say - what then? Are we to English voices and English speech were allow that mistake to ruin our lives? plainly audible from the dining-room on When you left me, six months after our the opposite side of the passage. marriage, did you solve the problem? It is not so, in my experience, not by such precipitate action, that the problems of life are solved. Ours, I grant, was a hard one; but I think that faith, patience and friendship, might have helped its solution more than a rash step which I resented bitterly at the time, but which I have long since forgiven, knowing under what misapprehension it was you labored. Knowing that you thought I had deceived you, I wonder the less that you should have acted as you did. But you have long "But you ought to mind, Emmy. since known that you were mistaken, and Really your attacks are no trifle, either I think you must sometimes have been for yourself or for any one else. I wish sorry that you would listen to no explana-to-day, instead of riding. I see no chance we had taken a carriage for the excursion tion, that you refused to see me, that you of this rain ceasing, and we shall be perleft my letters unopened. I should have been more urgent, if I had not fancied fectly drenched before we get home." forgive me, Emilia, if I am wrong you were not altogether sorry for the pretext; that refusing to be happy under my roof, you were glad rather of any reasonable excuse for returning to your own friends. But after three years, are you still in the same mind? Is your life so happy, is the thought of me so intolerable, that you absolutely refuse to face a future in which I should have a part? For myself, I confess that I see no reason why two honest people should not make up their minds to what is irreparable, and, patient to bear with each other, should not agree to share the burthen of life, which with the weight of the past upon it, I, for my part, own I sometimes find very heavy - that A clap of thunder and some large drops of rain startled the reader; he looked up at the sky; the rolling clouds had gathered overhead; a storm was imminent. His eye glanced rapidly to the signature of the letter: "Henry Lawrence; " and folding the paper, he replaced it in the envelope, which he closed. For a moment he considered the address: "Mrs. Lawrence, Hôtel de Paris, Bagnères de Luchon;" then placing the letter in his Lawrence had got his change by this Through the open door of the diningtime; he stepped back into the passage. room he had a glimpse of three ladies in and handsome, were standing by the winriding-habits; two of them, both young dow; the third was seated at the table with her back towards Lawrence. He could see nothing but some twists of Chestnut hair beneath the drooping feather He of her hat, the curve of one ear, one slenwhilst the other played with her ridingder, ungloved hand supporting her head, whip. But the color of the hair, the turn of the head, the shape of the hand, the seemed not unfamiliar to Lawrence. attitude at once listless and graceful, half-made a step forward, but paused, hesitating, before he crossed the threshold; then abruptly turning, passed again to the outer door. The thunder was rolling away across the mountains, but the clouds were settling into grey, impenetrable mist overhead and around; it was raining heavily now, no thunder-shower, but a steady downpour that left no hope of immediate change. "It will pour the whole afternoon," said the same sweet, half-plaintive voice that had spoken before. |