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4

3

Standard Literature," 1 had published his translations of Cousin's 'Mélanges philosophiques" and Jouffroy's "Mélanges philosophiques." W. H. Channing had published in two different editions2 his translation of Jouffroy's "Introduction to Ethics." C. S. Henry had published in New York his translation of Cousin's "Elements of Psychology." H. G. Linberg published in Boston in 1832 his version of Cousin's "Introduction of the History of Philosophy." J. C. Daniel translated in 1849 Cousin's "The Philosophy of the Beautiful." The translation by O. W. Wight of Cousin's "History of Modern Philosophy" was published in New York, 1852. R. N. Toppan, in 1862, published a version of Jouffroy's "Moral Philosophy.' 995 Besides the above seven there were two other somewhat unimportant publications, Sarah Austin's translation of Cousin's "The State of Public Instruction in Prussia"; and Mary L. Booth's translation of Cousin's "Secret History of the French Court under Richelieu and Mazarin.” 7

6

In the preface to his translation, H. G. Linberg writes concerning Cousin a few words which are indicative of the temper of the time toward Cousin, the renowned French Eclectic philosopher: "It is well known that the lectures of M. Victor Cousin excite strong emotions of sympathy and approbation, and are listened to and read with that attention and respect which is the most satisfactory evidence of a powerful conviction of their rationality and truth by a very numerous class of intelligent and well informed young men who may be fairly considered to represent the flower of the rising generation in their respective countries." And R. H. Toppan in the preface to his edition writes as follows about Jouffroy: "The following translation contains three extracts from the philosophical writings of Jouffroy, one of the most profound of the French philosophers of the nineteenth century and a pupil of the celebrated Cousin." 9

2

1 Hilliard, Gray & Co., Boston, 1838.

James Munroe & Co., Boston, 1848; and Specimens of Foreign Standard Literature, Hilliard, Gray & Co., Boston, 1840.

3 Gould & Newman, N. Y., 1838.

N. Y., 1849.

6 N. Y., 1839.

5 W. H. Tinson, N. Y., 1862. 7 N. Y., 1859.

8 Introduction to the History of Philosophy, W. H. Tinson, N. Y., 1862.

• Moral Philosophy, W. H. Tinson, N. Y., 1862.

Having given in a general way a definition of Transcendentalism, set forth a cursory sketch of miscellaneous precursors of the NewEngland movement, and outlined certain features which marked the beginnings of the Transcendental epoch in New England, we now come to the second part of our dissertation which comprises gathering together and setting forth some telling facts concerning the French Expositors of Transcendentalism.

II. FRENCH EXPOSITORS OF TRAN

SCENDENTALISM

1. TRANSMISSION OF TRANSCENDENTALISM INTO FRANCE

"FROM Descartes and Spinoza it (Transcendentalism)

descended through Leibnitz and Kant, and their later interpreters, Cousin and Jouffroy," so writes Mr. Johnson.1 But other Frenchmen besides Cousin and Jouffroy were instrumental in taking up and carrying on the movement of Transcendentalism. Nine writers at least acted more or less the part of agents in developing in France the idealism of the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries; they are: Laromiguière, RoyerCollard, Maine de Biran, Degenerando, Guizot, Villiers, and Mme. de Staël, as well as Victor Cousin and Théodore Jouffroy.

France and Germany, indeed, in the early part of the nineteenth century, were the two great philosophical nations of Europe. The position of philosophy in these two countries, occupying the center of the European stage, is interesting. It marks an era of transition. With the close of the eighteenth century, Germany terminated an era of exclusive idealism, the idealism of Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Schelling; and France, taking up the idealistic movement where Germany laid it down, brought to a close an era of exclusive sensualism - the sensualism of the French Encyclopedists, Condillac, d'Holbach, and Helvétius.

The writers in France who especially helped to effect the transition from the exclusive sensualism of the eighteenth century school of philosophy to an eclectic idealism-of a German Transcendental sort of the early nineteenth century are, - Laromiguière, who succeeded in separating the element of attention from sensation;

1 Transcendentalism, S. Johnson, Boston, 1884.

Royer-Collard, who further undermined materialistic philosophy and introduced into France the incipient idealism of Scotch as well as German philosophy; Maine de Biran, who traced in an interesting way the origin of elevated ideas to human consciousness; Degenerando 1 who helped to bolster up, in his " Systemes compares de philosophie," the current idealistic theories; and, finally, the two distinguished philosophers, Cousin and Jouffroy, whom we have especially under consideration.

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Several other figures in French literature are connected, in a minor way, with the idealistic movement in France which we have under consideration. Cabanis, who discussed systematically the relations of body and soul, is distinguished for being the predecessor of Laromiguière. Saint-Simon, the forerunner of Fourier, is regarded as the founder of French socialism of an idealistic, communistic nature. And then there are several French critics and philosophers who followed in the wake of Cousin and Jouffroy and are worthy of note in passing because of their sympathies and interests of a Transcendental sort, namely, Paul Janet, the author of a treatise on Plato; Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire, who made expositions of Aristotle's works and Hindu philosophy; Bouillet, the author of a dissertation on Plotinus; Émile Saisset, who discussed Spinoza; Tissot and Barni, who wrote upon Kant; and J. Simon and E. Vacherot, who were interested in the philosophic system of Cousin and undertook expositions of the Alexandrine School. But these figures either preceded or followed the main idealistic movement and are not directly connected with the transmission of Transcendentalism into France.

Madame de Staël was the first of the important French writers who were agents in transmitting German Transcendentalism into France. She traveled extensively in Germany during the years 1803-1804; wrote in her "De L'Allemagne," first published in 1810, critical appreciations of such German idealists as Wieland, the Schlegels, Fichte, Kant, and Jacobi; and even attempted in this volume cursory expositions of German philosophy in the chapters,

"De l'influence de la nouvelle philosophie sur le caractère des Allemands," "Des philosophes les plus célèbres de l'Allemagne,

1 Mentioned by Cousin in Introduction to History of Philosophy, and by one of the editors of The Dial.

avant et après Kant,” and “Du principe de la morale, dans la nouvelle philosophie allemande." 1

We cite a selection or so, to illustrate the tenor of her writings bearing on German Transcendentalism, from her “"La philosophie et la morale" in "De L'Allemagne ":

"Parmi les différentes branches de la philosophie, celle qui a particulièrement occupé les Allemands, c'est la métaphysique. Les objets qu'elle embrasse peuvent être divisés en trois classes. La première se rapporte au mystère de la création, c'est-à-dire à l'infini en toutes choses; la seconde à la formation des idées dans l'esprit humain; et la troisième à l'exercice de nos facultés, sans remonter à leur source. Une foule de questions morales et religieuses dépendent de la manière dont on considère l'origine de la formation de nos idées. C'est surtout la diversité des systèmes à cet égard qui sépara les philosophes allemandes des philosophes français. . . . Il est donc impossible de faire connaître l'Allemagne, sans indiquer la marche de la philosophie, qui depuis Leibnitz jusqu'à nos jours n'a cessé d'exercer un si grand empire sur la république des lettres. . . . Je demandais un jour à Fichte, l'une des plus fortes têtes pensantes de l'Allemagne, s'il ne pouvait pas me dire sa morale, plutôt que sa métaphysique. 'L'une dépend de l'autre,' me répondit-il. Et ce mot était plein de profondeur; il renferme tous les motifs de l'intérêt qu'on peut prendre à la philosophie. . . . On s'est accoutumé à la considérer comme destructive de toutes les croyances du cœur; elle serait alors la véritable ennemie de l'homme; mais il n'en est point ainsi de la doctrine de Platon, ni de celle des Allemands; ils regardent le sentiment comme un fait, comme le fait primitif de l'âme, et la raison philosophique comme destinée seulement à rechercher la signification de ce fait." 2

Victor Cousin, however, was a still more significant figure than Madame de Staël. In one of his lectures Schelling makes an interesting statement. He tells us: "In his different visits to Germany Cousin has won great personal esteem and friendship, not only among philosophers by profession, but among the German

1 Cf. Œuvres complètes de Madame la Baronne de Staël, Holstein, Tome Deuxième, A Paris, Firmin-Didot Frères et Cie., 1836, first published in 1810.

2

De L'Allemagne, Troisième partie, chapitre premier.