timacy between them. The instances just mentioned show in what different ways and varying degrees assimilation may take place. In some of them the assimilated race still retains a distinct national character. The Moor of Morocco, for instance, differs from the Arab much as the Greek-speaking Syrian and the Latinspeaking Lusitanian differed from a Greek of Attica or a Roman of Latium. But the Finnish tribes of northern and eastern Russia, Voguls, Tcheremisses, Tchuvasses, and Mordvins, who have been gradually Russified during the last two centuries, are on their way to become practically undistinguishable from the true Slavonic Russians of Kieff. And to come nearer home, the Celts of Cornwall have been Anglified, and those of the Highlands of Scotland have in many districts become assimilated to the Lowland Scotch, with no great intermixture of blood.

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weaker may be comparatively slight, yet | native races, possibly with little social inif sufficient time be allowed, the process may end by a virtual identification of the two. Of course, when there is much intermarriage, not only does the change proceed faster, but it tells on the permeating as well as on the permeated race. The earliest instance of this diffusion of a civilization with little immixture of blood is to be found in the action of the Greek language, ideas, and manners upon the countries round the eastern half of the Mediterranean, and particularly upon Asia Minor. The native languages to some extent held their ground for a while in the wilder parts of the interior, but the upper classes and the whole type of culture became everywhere Hellenic. In the same way the Romans Romanized Gaul and Spain and North Africa. In the same way the Arabs in the centuries immediately after Mohammed Arabized not only Egypt and Syria, but the whole of North Africa, down to and including the maritime parts of Morocco, and have in later times, though to a far smaller extent, established the influence of their language and religion on the coasts of East Africa and in parts of the East Indian Archipelago. There is reason to believe, though our data are scanty, that in a somewhat similar way the Aryan tribes, who entered India at a very remote time, diffused their language, religion, and customs over northern Hindustan as far as the Bay of Bengal, changing to some extent the dark races whom they found in possession of the country, but being also so commingled with those more numerous races as to lose much of their own character. Hinduism and languages derived from Sanskrit came to prevail from the Indus to the Brahmaputra, although it would seem that to the east of the Jumna the proportion of Aryan intruders was very small. We ourselves in India are giving to the educated and wealthier class so much that is English in the way of ideas and literature that if the process continues for another century, our tongue may have become the lingua franca of India, and our type of civilization have extinguished all others. Yet if this happens it will happen with no mixture of blood between the European and the

It is worth while to be exact in distinguishing this process of permeation from cases of dispersion, because the two often go together that is to say, the migration of a certain, though perhaps a small number of persons of a vigorous and masterful race into a territory inhabited by another race of less force, or perhaps on a lower level of culture, is apt to be followed by a predominance of the stronger type, or at any rate by such a change in the character of the whole population as leads men in later times to assume that the number of migrating persons must have been large. The cases of the Greeks in western Asia and the Spaniards in the New World are in point. We talk of Asia Minor as if it had become a Greek country under Alexander's successors, of Mexico and Peru as Spanish countries after the sixteenth century, yet in both instances the native population must have largely preponderated. If therefore we were to look only at the changes which the speech, the customs, the ideas and institutions of nations have undergone, we might be disposed to attribute too much to the mere movement of races, too little to the influences which force of character, fertility of intellect, and command of scientific resource have exercised, and are still exercising, as the lead

ing races become more and more the owners and rulers of the backward regions of the world.

gates of the empire, found those gates undefended, entered the tempting countries that lay towards the Mediterranean and the ocean, and drew others on to follow. Of modern instances the most re

which began to swell out of Ireland after the great famine of 1846-7, and which has not yet ceased to flow.

II. We may now proceed to inquire what have been the main causes to which an outflow or an overflow of population markable is the stream of emigration from one region to another is due. Omitting, for the present, the cases of smal colonies founded for special purposes, these causes may be reduced to three. They are food, war, and labor. These three correspond in a sort of rough way to three stages in the progress of mankind, the first belonging especially to his savage and semi-civilized conditions, the second to that in which he organizes himself in political communities and uses his organization to prey upon or reduce to servitude his weaker neighbor; the third to that wherein industry and commerce have become the ruling factors in his society and wealth the main object of his efforts. The correspondence, however, is far from exact, because the need of subsistence remains through the combative and the industrial periods a potent cause of migration, while the love of war and plunder, active even among savages, is by no means extinct in the mature civilization of to-day.

In speaking of food, or rather the want of food, as a cause, we must include several sets of cases. One is that in which sheer hunger, due perhaps to a drought or a hard winter, drives a tribe to move to some new region where the beasts of chase are more numerous, or the pastures are not exhausted, or a more copious rainfall favors agriculture.* Another is that of a tribe increasing so fast that the preexisting means of subsistence no longer suffice for its wants. And a third is that where, whether or not famine be present to spur its action, a people conceives the desire for life in a richer soil or a more genial climate. To one or other of these cases we may refer nearly all the movements of populations in primitive times, the best known of which are those which brought the Teutonic and Slavonic tribes into the Roman Empire. They had a hard life in northern and eastern Europe; their natural growth exceeded the resources which their pastoral or village area sup. plied, and when once one or two had begun to press upon their neighbors, the disturbance was felt by each in succession until some, pushed up against the very

A succession of dry seasons, which may merely diminish the harvest of those who inhabit tolerably humid regions, will produce such a famine in the inner parts of a continent like Asia as to force the people to seek some better dwelling-place.

Among civilized peoples the same force is felt in a slightly different form. As population increases the competition for the means of livelihood becomes more intense, while at the same time the standard of comfort tends to rise. Hence those on whom the pressure falls heaviest (if they are not too shiftless to move), and those who have the keenest wish to better their condition, forsake their homes for lands that lie under another sun. It is thus that the Russian peasantry have been steadily moving from the north to the south of European Russia, till they have now occupied the soil down to the very foot of Caucasus for some five hundred miles from the point they had reached a century and a half ago. It is thus that, on a smaller scale, the Greek-speaking population of the west coast of Asia Minor is creeping eastward up the river valleys, and beginning to re-colonize the interior of that once prosperous region. It is thus that North America and Australasia have been filled by the overflow of Europe during the last sixty years, for before that time the growth of the United States and of Canada had been mainly a home growth from the small seeds planted two hundred years earlier. That the mere spirit of enterprise, apart from the increase of population, counts for little as a cause of migration, seems to be shown not only by the slight outflow from Europe during last century, but by the fact that France, where the population is practically stationary, sends out no emigrants save a few to Algeria, while the steady movement from Norway and Sweden does little more than relieve the natural growth of the population of those countries. As regards European emigration to America, it is worth noting that during the last thirty years it has been steadily extending, not only eastwards towards the inland parts of Europe, but also downwards in the scale of civilization, tapping, so to speak, lower and lower strata. Between 1840 and 1850 the flow towards America was chiefly from the British Isles. From 1849 onwards, it began to be considerable from Germany also, and very shortly afterwards from Scandinavia, reaching a figure of hundreds

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As regards the more regular conquests made by civilized States in modern times, such as those of Finland, Poland, Trans. caucasia and Transcaspia by Russia, of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria, of India and Cape Colony by Great Britain, of Cochin China and Annam by France, it may be said that they seldom result in any considerable transfer of population. Such effects as they have are rather due to that process of permeation which we have already considered.

of thousands from the European continent in Transylvania and the French in Lower in each year. From Germany the migra- Canada; it is military policy which has settory tendency spread into Bohemia, Mora- tled Russian colonies, sometimes armed, via, Poland, and the other Slavonic regions sometimes of agricultural dissenters, along of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, as well the Transcaucasian frontiers and on the as into Italy. To-day the people of the further shore of the Caspian. It was mil. United States, who had welcomed indus- itary policy which led Shalmaneser and trious Germans and hardy Scandinavians Nebuchadnezzar to carry off large parts of because both made good citizens, become the people of Israel and Judah to settle daily more restive under the ignorant and them in the cities of the Medes or by the semi-civilized masses whom central Eu- waters of Babylon.* rope flings upon their shores. At the other end of the world, the vast emigration from China is partly attributable to the need of food; but to this I shall recur presently when we come to speak of labor. The second of our causes is war. In early times, or among the ruder peoples, it is rather to be called plunder, for most of their wars were undertaken less for permanent conquest than for booty. The invasions of Britain by the English, of Gaul by the Franks, of England and Scotland by the Norsemen and Danes, all began with mere piratical or raiding expeditions, though ending in considerable transfers of population. The same may be said of the conquest of Pegu and Arracan by the Burmese in last century and (to a smaller extent) of that southward movement of the wild Chin and Kachyen tribes whom our present rulers of Burmah find so troublesome. So the conquests of Egypt and Persia by the first successors of the Prophet, so the conquests of Mexico and Peru by the Spaniards, though tinged with religious propagandism, were prima rily expeditions in search of plunder. This character, indeed, belongs all through to the Spanish migrations to the New World. Apparently few people went from Spain, meaning, like our colonists a century later, to make a living by their own labor from the soil or from commerce, which, indeed, the climate of Central and South America would have rendered a more difficult task. They went to enrich themselves by robbing the natives or by getting the precious metals from the toil of natives in the mines, a form of commercial enterprise whose methods made it scarcely distinguishable from rapine. In modern times the discovery of the precious metals has helped to swell the stream of immigration, as when gold was discovered in California in 1846 and in Australia a little later; but in these instances, though enrichment is the object, rapine is no longer the means. There are, however, other senses in which we may call war a source of movements of races. It was military policy which planted the Saxons

Labor (ie., the need for labor) becomes a potent cause of migrations in this way that the necessity for having in particu lar parts of the world men who can undertake a given kind of toil under given climatic conditions draws such men to those countries from their previous dwelling-place. This set of cases differs from the cases of migrations in search of subsistence, because the migrating population may have been tolerably well off at home. As the food migrations have been described as an outflow from countries overstocked with inhabitants, so in these cases of labor migration what we remark is the inflow of masses of men to fill a vacuum - that is, to supply the absence in the country to which they move of the sort of workpeople it requires. However, it often happens that the two phenomena coincide, the vacuum in one country helping to determine the direction of the influx from those other countries whose population is already superabundant. This has happened in the case of the most remarkable of such recent overflows, that of the Chinese over the coasts and islands of the Pacific. The need of western America for cheap labor to make railways and to cultivate large areas just brought under tillage, as well as to supply domestic service, drew the Chinese to California and Oregon, and but for the stringent prohibitions of recent legislation would have brought many thousands of them into the

So the Siamese, after their conquest of Tenasserim, carried off many of the Taluin population and settled them near Bangkok, where they remain as a distinct population to this day.

Mississippi valley. Similar conditions | something wherewith to live better at were drawing them in great numbers to home; but it constantly happens that such Australia, and especially to North Queens- temporary migration is the prelude to perland, whose climate is too hot for whites manent occupation. So the Irish reapers to work in the fields; but here, also, the used to come to England and Scotland influx has been stopped by law. They before the emigration from Ireland to the were beginning to form so considerable a English and Scottish towns swelled to proportion of the population of the Ha- great proportions in 1847. The Italians waiian isles that public opinion there who now go to the Argentine Republic compelled the sugar planters to cease im- less frequently return than did their preporting them, and, in order to balance decessors of twenty years ago. them, Portuguese labor was brought from the Azores, and Japanese from Japan. Into Siam and the Malay peninsula, and over the eastern Archipelago, Chinese migration goes on steadily; and it seems not improbable that in time this element may be the prevailing one in the whole of Indo-China and the adjoining islands, for the Chinese are not only a more prolific but altogether a stronger and hardier stock than either their relatives the Shans, Burmese, and Annamese, or their less immediate neighbors the Malays. If in the distant future there comes to be a time in which, the weaker races having been trodden down or absorbed by the more vigorous, few are left to strive for the mastery of the world, the Chinese will be one of those few. None has a greater tenacity of life.

Not unlike these Chinese migrations, but on a smaller scale, is that of Santhals to Assam, and of South Indian coolies to Ceylon (where the native population was comparatively indolent), and latterly to the isles and coasts of the Caribbean Sea. Here there has been a deliberate importation of laborers by those who needed their labor; and, although the laborers have intended to return home after a few years' service, and are indeed, under British regulations, supplied with return passage tickets, permanent settlements are likely to result, for the planters of Guiana, for instance, have little prospect of supplying themselves in any other way with the means of working their estates. The coolies would doubtless be brought to tropical Australia also, but for the dislike of the colonists to the regulations insisted on by the Indian government; so instead of them comes that importation of Pacific islanders into North Queensland which is now a matter of so much controversy: Under very different conditions we find the more spontaneous immigration of French Canadians into the northern United States, where they obtain employment in the factories, and are now becoming permanently resident. At first they came only to work till they had earned

In all these instances the transfer of population due to a demand for labor has been, or at least has purported to be, a voluntary transfer. But by far the largest of all such transfers, now happily at an end, was involuntary—I mean that of Africans carried to America to cultivate the soil there for the benefit of white proprietors. From early in the sixteenth century, when the destruction of the native Indians by their Spanish taskmasters in the Antilles started the slave-trade,† down to our own times, when slavers still occasionally landed their cargoes in Brazil, the number of negroes carried from Africa to America must be reckoned by many millions. In 1791 it was estimated that sixty thousand were carried annually to the West Indies alone. The change effected may be measured by the fact that along the southern coasts of North America, in the West India Islands, and in some districts of Brazil, the negroes form the largest part of the population. Their total number, which in the United States alone exceeds seven millions, cannot be less than from thirteen to sixteen millions. They increase rapidly in South Carolina and the Gulf States of the Union, are stationary in Mexico and Peru, and in Central America seem to diminish.

Though some have suggested their remigration to Africa, there is not the slight

I do not dwell on the slave-trade in ancient times, because we have no trustworthy data as to its extent, but there can be no doubt that vast numbers of barba rians from the west, north, and east of Italy and Greece must have been brought in during five or six centuries, and have sensibly changed the character of the popula tion of the countries round the Adriatic and Egean. slaves were caught because their captors did not wish Here, of course, there was no question of climate, but to work themselves. The slave-trade practised by the merchants of Bristol before the Norman Conquest, and that practised by the Turkomans recently, resemble these ancient forms of the practice. Portugal in 1442, soon after which they began to be brought in large numbers from the Guinea coasts. There were already some in Hispaniola in 1502; and the trade from Africa seems to have set in after 1517 regularly, though it did not become large till a still later date. Las Casas lived to bitterly repent the qualified approval he had given to it, in the interests of the swiftly destroying; but it is a complete error to ascribe aborigines of the Antilles, whom labor in the mines was its origin to him.

+ The first negroes were brought from Morocco to

est reason to think that this will take place | man colonies at Tiflis and other places in to any appreciable extent. On the other the Russian dominions. Nor ought we hand, it is not likely that they will, except to forget one striking instance of expatriaperhaps in the unsettled tropical interior tion for the sake of freedom that of the of the less elevated parts of South Amer- petty chieftains of western Norway, who ica, spread beyond the area which they settled Iceland in the ninth century to now occupy. The slave-trade is, unfortu- escape the growing power of King Harold nately, not yet extinct on the east coast of the Fairhaired. Africa, but it has caused so comparatively slight a transfer of population from that continent to Arabia, the Turkish dominions, and Persia, as not to require discussion here.