THE two main divisions of the history of philosophy are ancient and modern. All that does not strictly belong to either of these may be regarded as forming transition steps. Modern civilization, though it may not have excelled antiquity in the fine arts, poetry, rhetoric, statuary-and is indebted to it for the foundation of pure mathematics-has far surpassed it in those branches of knowledge which are based on observation and experi ment. In order rightly to estimate the scientific reformation which was mainly brought about by Bacon, let us glance at the chief charac Bacon's Essays, Apophthegms, Wisdom of the Ancients, New Atlantis, and Henry VII. With Introductory Dissertation and Notes by J. Devey, M.A. (Bohn's Standard Library, 1852.) Bacon's Novum Organum, and Advancement of Learning. With Notes by J. Devey, M.A. (Bohn's Scientific Library, 1853.) The present article is intended to be an exposition. We have endeavored to gather the vintage' of the accounts given by Stewart, Playfair, Napier, Campbell, Macaulay, Hallam, Morell, Cousin, Hoppus, Lewis, Craik, &c. The editions which we have noticed above contain valuable illustrative notes. Their cheapness places the works of the illustrious philosopher within the reach of a large circle of readers. VOL. XXXIV.-NO. IL teristics of the scholastic philosophy. As early as the second century of the present era, Christianity came in contact with the philosophy of the age, and especially with New Platonism. It was not, however, till the eleventh century, that what may be called Christian philosophy sprung up, which, under its varied phases, is collectively styled scholasticism. The origin of this term is to be found in the Scholæ, or schools, which were founded by Charlemagne for philosophical studies; in which, however, scarcely any in those days had either leisure or inclination to engage, except the clergy. Hence the main characteristic of this period was constant endeavor to explain the doctrines of the church philosophically, and to work them up into the form of scientific systems. Anselm's declaration, "credo ut intelligam," was adopted as the guiding writers exhibit an immense amount of subprinciple. The works of the scholastic tlety and acuteness, industry and toil; but, on the other hand, a mass of barren definitions and fruitless distinctions, "grave trifling, and solemn folly;" hence, the absence of really valuable results. The final aim of scholastic philosophy was 10 a scientific development of the tenets of the Roman church. It assumed as its basis the truth of those tenets, and employed as its instrument the Aristotelian logic. The deep and extensive influence of Aristotle's writings at this period is thus graphically described by Dr. Hoppus :-"This logic was the engine by which, for ages, the minds of men were bewitched in a manner that was altogether extraordinary.. clesiastical authority. As the first of these, we may place the revival of learning in the fifteenth century. During the scholastic age, the study of the ancient classical authors had declined: even the Platonic and Aristotelian systems were known almost exclusively from translations and secondary sources. Italy first awoke to a juster appreciation of the beauties of the antique. The arrival of Glosses, para-Greek fugitives from Constantinople gave a great impulse to the study of ancient authors in that land. Greek and Latin works were read in the original languages, and the art of printing multiplied copies. Learned men assembled at the court of the Medici at Florence. Bessarion and Marsilius Ficinus distinguished themselves as expositors of the ancient, and especially of the Platonic philosophy. Classical refinement protested against the dry, inelegant, uncritical mode in which the sciences had hitherto been handled. "The mere substitution of the Academic for the Peripatetic philosophy would indeed have done little good. But any thing was better than the old habit of unreasoning servility. It was something to have a choice of tyrants. A spark of freedom,' as Gibbon has justly remarked, was produced by this collision of adverse servitude.'"* phrases, summaries, arguments, and dissertations on his works were composed without end... Many of the inhabitants of the west learned Arabic, in order to read a translation of them in that language. The Latin tongue was made another medium of their circulation, and they were read in most parts of the known world. .. Aris totle's works were the great text-book of knowledge, and his logic was the only weapon of truth. Christians, Jews, and Mahometans united in professing assent to the great law-giver of human opinions; not Europe alone, but also Africa and Asia acknowledged his dominion; and while his Greek originals were studied at Paris, translations were read in Persia and at Samarcand. The rage for disputation, which now began to prevail in consequence of the spread of this philosophy, induced the council of La- The second and main cause was the Refteran, under Pope Innocent III., to proclaim ormation. The contest against the spirit of a prohibition of the use of the physics and scholasticism—the advocacy of classic culture metaphysics of Aristotle; but awful as were the struggle after national independencethen the thunders of the Vatican, they were the efforts of society to liberate itself from not mighty enough to dethrone him from that the Roman hierarchy-the desire of explordespotism over men's minds which, by longing the facts and laws of nature-above all, custom, had now rendered itself almost omnipotent." At length, "in some of the universities of Europe, statutes were framed, which required the professors to promise on oath, that in their public lectures on philosophy, they would follow no other guide." the grasping of individual reason after a full emancipation from external authority-in short, every element of modern times finds its centre point in the great German reformation. Luther and many of his distinguished contemporaries did not hesitate to express their contempt of the Peripatetic philosophy. The most important point of philosophical discussion during the scholastic age, and one which exhibits itself through the whole A third cause was a number of disconperiod, is that between Nominalism and Real-nected attempts at independent thinking on ism. Realism philosophized in support of the part of Peter Ramus (1515-1572) in the the church, and was in turn protected by science of logic; of Telesius and Campanelecclesiastical authority; Nominalism contend- la in physics; and of Patritius, and Giordano ed against the dominion of ecclesiastical Bruno in metaphysics-all which, however, power; Realism represents the dogmatical, failed to produce any permanent results. Nominalism the critical element; Realism fettered individual freedom with the bonds of external authority; Nominalism sought to establish the autonomy of human reason. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, several great events combined in bringing about the ultimate freedom of rational speculation from subordination to ec A fourth cause was the rise of the natural sciences. Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo restored to nature the honor of which scholasticism had robbed her, gave a new aspect to the world of thought, and shook men's faith in the authority of the church. The |