living infallible authority, supplementary to, recognition of Religion and of the Church and expository of, the written word of as independent powers, whose liberties are Scripture, was indeed coupled with a pro- essential for the accomplishment of the ends test against the existing corruptions of the of the Christian society. Even this philoChurch, and an expression of his fear that sopher seems not to have felt, that when rea formal adherence to Rome on his own ligion becomes the slave of merely human part would, from the practical intolerance authority, it ceases to be either the great of the Romish theologians, cramp the free- instrument of civilization, or the means of dom of his philosophical speculations. preparing men for the full communion of Though he thus firmly resisted all solicita- the city of God. The pious Spener, who tions to join the outward communion of the had personally experienced this supernatPapal Church, yet his heart, and perhaps ural force, predicted the ill issue of the his conviction, was accorded to the system Conference for Union, held in Hanover in of the hierarchy. His love for scholastic 1698, at which Leibnitz, Jablonski, and learning may have biassed his inclinations Molanus were present. The result justified in this direction, and his comprehensive his sagacity. A scheme for ecclesiastical genius, like that of many other kindred union or co-operation, in order to be sucspirits, found gratification in the seeming cessful, should be able to assume the spirit vast unity and completeness of the ideal of hearty and supreme devotion to religion Catholic Church, with its ritual, and its or- on the part of those who are to be united ganization, apparently so suited for all the and not the political arrangements of navarious characters and circumstances of tions, but the progress of a great spiritual those whom it desires to embrace within its commonwealth must be its ruling princiample fold, and all bearing so much the ple.* semblance of a fitting picture of that still vaster organization wherein he loved to contemplate the whole universe reclaimed into the harmony of the government of the Allholy and the All-wise. We must not extend our notice of this very suggestive topic. This part of the life of our philosopher is not one which occasions unmixed satisfaction. The source of those oscillations of opinion which are sometimes the consequence, in honest and devout minds, of a many-sided view of an extremely comprehensive subject, is hardly sufficient to account for the inconsistencies of Leibnitz in his negotiations with the representatives of the Church of Rome.

The general doctrine of toleration, and the laws which regulate the attainment of truth, were frequently the subjects of incidental speculation on the part of Leibnitz, connected as they are with these ecclesiastical questions, and, indeed, with the discussion of whatever relates to the social or individual good estate of man. His disposition was naturally tolerant. In his works we have repeated glimpses of those doctrines which have now become much more widely diffused throughout society, and which were so admirably enforced by his great contemporary Locke. He repeatedly appreciates with distinctness the value of the prevalence of mild sentiments, and an unsectarian spirit, as means for the discovery and diffusion of truth-habits of mind, which, we are glad to believe, are becoming now of more generally recognized moral obligation.

During the later years of his life he was much engaged with another project of ecclesiastical union. A scheme was developed by him about the year 1697 (under the auspices of the Courts of Hanover and Berlin), for a general union against Rome of the Protestants, and especially of the two *It appears that an attempt was made early in great sections of Protestantism, the Luther- the eighteenth century, and supported by Leiban and the Reformed. It was quite suited the English Church into Hanover and Prussia. nitz, to introduce the constitution and liturgy of to the eclectic genius of the philosopher, A correspondence was opened with the Archand was long pressed by him on the public bishop of Canterbury, and afterwards with the attention. He labored to destroy what he Archbishop of York. The English liturgy was called the idle phantoms," by which the do the events of history re-appear! translated in o German in 1704 How strangely The atProtestant Churches were separated. But tempt to approximate the organization of the the same vicious principles which pervaded Churches of England and Prussia was unsuccesshis other scheme of universal Christian fully revived very recently; and in 1817, the fondcommunion, marred this project of Protest-ly-cherished scheme of Le bnitz, having for its ant union. Both were essentially merely was actually accomplished under the auspices of end the union of the Lutheran and the Reformed, political and philosophical. We find no the late King of Prussia.

Even the speculative discussion of this of his most valuable contributions to philoclass of subjects has not yet been exhaust-sophy are due to the publication of the celed. There is wide room for an investiga-ebrated "Essay on Human Understandtion into those general relations among ing," which appeared in 1690, and at once men considered as members of society, in attracted his attention. There could be regard to individual belief or opinion, little mutual sympathy between two philowhich the moral law demands, and which sophers so completely antagonist as the aureason and experience approve, as best thor of the Essay and himself. Locke defitted to secure the most extensive diffusion spised what he called the "chimeras" of of truth; and in subordination to which Leibnitz. The Teutonic philosopher acall special social organization, civil and corded to his English contemporary the ecclesiastical, ought to be regulated. The praise of perspicuity, but proclaimed his full solution of this great problem is still utter ignorance of the "demonstrative among those left to exercise the minds of metaphysics." In 1703, being disengaged, the men of this or of some future age. he undertook a formal reply to Locke, Throughout the forty years of his con- which he completed in the following year. nexion with the court of Hanover, Leib- The death of Locke caused an indefinite nitz maintained, with unabated energy, his postponement of the publication of this literary intercourse, during which he set- book, which did not appear till long after tled and strengthened the foundations of the death of the author. In 1765, it was the literary republic of Europe. In 1637, given to the world by the industrious he travelled up the Rhine, and ransacked Raspe. This work, under the title of the libraries and archives of Bavaria, Bo-" Nouveaux Essais sur l'Entendement Huhemia and Vienna, extending his acquaint-main," is the masterpiece of his philosophiance with learned men. In 1689, he went cal works, and contains the substance of all to Italy, and gained free access to the Vati- that has been advanced by him on behalf of can and Barberini libraries. His inter- his speculative system, against the school of course with the Jesuits and other religious Locke. Orders, was all turned to the account of add- Leibnitz' manner of publication was, for ing to his stores of learning. After visiting the most part, fragmentary. His "SysRome he travelled through most of Italy, teme de l'Harmonie Préétablie” is developed and returned to Hanover in 1690, only to in various small treatises. There is, howresume his labors in the Royal library, of ever, one great work, which is more popular which he had been appointed keeper. In and practical in its style, and therefore more 1700, he was the means of founding the generally known than any of his other wrifamous Berlin Academy of Sciences, meant tings, the preparation of which occupied by him to be a centre of German literary much part of many years of his life. We and scientific intercourse and effort. He refer to the Theodicée-a book which was unfortunately unsuccessful in his en- holds a front rank in the very small class of deavor to establish at Vienna another insti- works specially conversant with the philotute of the same kind, and on a still more sophy of religion. The design of the Thecomprehensive plan. He was much inter-odicée is to reconcile the existence and ested in the civilization of the rising Russian continuance of evil in the universe with the empire, and had several personal conferences on the subject with Peter the Great. He busied himself with the cause of education and missionary exertion in Russia, and also in the German States, where he was anxious that the schools and colleges should be seminaries of Protestant missions.

character of God-to remove a difficulty that has been raised in all ages, and in all religions-and that is to be counted the fundamental metaphysical problem of the Christian philosophy. It has already been indicated that the thoughts of Leibnitz were directed to these subjects from the time of his decided intellectual developAmid all his diversified projects and stu- ment. In 1671 he wrote a tract on Free pendous literary activity, the metaphysical Will and Predestination. The negotiations tendency ever preserved the ascendency in about Church union probably interested the genius of Leibnitz. His philosophical him the more in these speculations, as the principles were gradually matured soon af- circulation of doctrines fitted to harmonize ter his settlement in Hanover. The doc- the Scripture view of the character of God trine of Monads appeared in a succession with the dark phenomena of the moral of publications subsequent to 1680. Some world might facilitate the peace of the

Church. The avowed purpose of the Thé- lurid glare, which during his extraordinary odicée is to refute the skeptical principle of life had attracted the eyes of the world, disBayle, who denied the consistency of faith appears; while we have not the record we and reason, and thus laid a foundation for universal doubt. The public appearance of the work in 1710, produced a profound sensation. It was received with applause by most of the continental universities, but the prevalence of Locke's Philosophy in England prepared the public mind in this country to receive it with distaste.

could desire, indicating that the moral sensibilities of the Philosopher were rightly alive to the decisive nature of the awful change. His seventy years are ended, and the lightning seems lost among dark clouds. During the last day of his life, we are told he was busied in conversation with his physician on the nature of his disease, and The current of speculation continued to on the doctrines of alchymy. Towards flow during the later years of the philoso- evening his servant asked him if he would pher's life. In 1714 he drew up a scheme receive the Eucharist. "Let me alone," of his philosophy for the use of Prince said he; "I have done ill to no one. I Eugene of Savoy (La monadologie). This have nothing to confess. All must die." period of his life was signalized by his He raised himself on the bed and tried to correspondence with Des Bosses. The write. The darkness of death was gathclose of 1715 is memorable as the com-ering around him. He found himself unamencement of a still more interesting cor- ble to read what he had written. He tore respondence. In a letter to the Princess of the paper, and, lying down, covered his Wales, he assailed the philosophical and face, and a few minutes after nine o'clock religious principles of the school of Locke and Newton. This called forth Samuel Clarke on their defence. The replies of Leibnitz and the rejoinders of Clarke contain as large an amount of curious speculation as any work of modern times. The manner of God's relation to the universe -the nature of miracles-the laws of the divine and human will-the ideas of space and time-and the character and limits of the material world, are among the stores of this magazine of speculative discussion. The controversy was continued with increasing zeal on both sides. Inferior far in power of generalization and originality to his antagonist, the intellect of Clarke was yet possessed of an acuteness and logical force which rendered him one of the most skilful of philosophical disputants, and demanded a full display of the comprehensiveness and grandeur of mind of his German rival,*

But that mighty spirit was now to have his connexion with this scene of existence Leibnitz had suffered from occasional illness during several preceding years. These attacks, however, passed away, and the philosopher resumed his speculations with renewed energy. In November 1716, when he had to prepare his reply to Clarke's fifth letter, his complaint returned with great violence. The closing scene suggests gloomy reflections, as the

* An English version of this corre-pondence was published by Clarke in 1717.

on the evening of the 14th November, 1716, he ceased to breathe. It is most solemn to contemplate a human spirit, whose course of thought throughout life was unsurpassed for power of speculation, and daring range of mind among the higher objects of knowledge, and which, at the period of its departure, was in the depths of a controversy about the mysteries of the supersensible world,-thus summoned into that world, to become conversant in its final relations with that Being who had entrusted it with such mental power, and whose nature and attributes had so often tasked its speculative energies.

A

The effect, upon most minds, of the record of the life of this Philosopher, is likely to be a confused amazement at the extraordinary spectacle of continued mental exercises so unparalleled in kind and variety. Yet a vague impression of this sort ought not to be the predominant one. grand unity pervades the seeming confusion. The reigning idea which diffuses a community of principle through the whole cycle of his works, we have traced back to the earliest operations of his reflecting powers. Conversant throughout his life with those mysteries in proof of which no reason can be given, and with real or seeming demonstrations based on te foundation of these first principles, we find in Leibnitz the model of the speculative metaphysician.

The philosophical works of Leibnitz are in bulk only a small part of the literaFry productions of a life devoted to almost

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LEIBNITZ.

[AUGUST,

cast forth often in disorder, as it were with intent to exercise the generalizing powers of others. From out of this stimulating variety, there may, however, be extracted two or three more prominent ideas, united, as far as possible, by demonstration, with his assumed first principles; for the main purpose of this metaphysician was to give to philosophy a mathematical strictness and certainty, and to reconcile its doctrines with those of theology. The universe is

the whole sphere of possible knowledge. Professor Erdmann has rendered good service to the thinking world by his edition (the most valuable of those enumerated at the commencement of this Article) of this class of the writings of the father of German speculation. While Leibnitz could on no subject write unphilosophically, yet, there are sections of his works which may be extracted and combined for publication as more exclusively and profoundly philosophical, indicating not ripples, extended contemplated by him in the threefold relawidely, perhaps, over the surface of thought, tion of (1), Its elements; (2), Their manbut the ocean-swell of an agitation that is ner of connexion; and (3), The end of far below. This department of his wri- their combination. tings is scattered, without much attention ments, he calls monadologie. The mutual The doctrine of eleto order, through the voluminous publica- relations of these elements, he held to be tion of Dutens, and is partly contained in developed in a pre-established harmony. the rare edition of his posthumous philo- The final end of creation, he represented sophical works by Raspe. Accordingly, as an optimism. Let us accompany him at while the life of Leibnitz is an epoch in the a distance, as he is constructing this system history of speculation, his speculative wri- of a priori universal philosophy, in order to tings have been seldom and superficially have before us a specimen of a class of sysstudied. Besides the materials collected tems, foreign, indeed, to Britain, but which in former editions, Professor Erdmann has may be compared with the doctrines of the enriched the publication now before us Eleatics, the Alexandrines, or Spinoza, in with no fewer than twenty-three original respect of its boldness and comprehension. documents of his author, not before published, and which this able and industrious self surrounded by compound or material Through experience, Leibnitz finds himeditor has recovered, during an search in 1836, among the accumulation the existence of elements, of which these active bodies of amazing variety. This implies of manuscripts in the Royal Library of compounds are the results, and the nature Hanover. Most of these added works re- of these elements is to be ascertained aclate to that theme, on the subject of which cording to the laws of thought. An appliwe have already remarked as the central cation of the principle of the Sufficient one of the intellectual life of Leibnitz. It Reason, demonstrates that matter can conincreases the convenience of this edition, sist neither of parts which are infinitely dithat the several works which it includes, visible, nor of atoms possessed of figure not fewer than 101 in number, have been and extension. Its elements must, therearranged, as nearly as possible, in the order fore, be simple, unextended forces, or Moin which they were written. In this exten-nads, in which we obtain the a priori idea sive collection, we are glad to recognize of substance. The individuality of these the Nouveaux Essais and the Théodicée. monads must consist in the different series

It is not easy to give even a brief expo- of internal change through which each sition of the very miscellaneous contents of these works. The system and manner of thinking of Leibnitz is to be gathered from his philosophical works studied collectively, rather than from any separate publication. These collected writings bear throughout one very marked characteristic of inventive genius; for they are crowded with richly suggestive germs of thought,

This may be seen by an inspection of the most comprehensive edition of his works, by DuTENS, (Geneva, 1763, 6 vols. 4to.) We observe

that a new edition of the entire works of Leib

nitz is just now in course of preparation at Hano

ver.

one passes in the course of its existence. In these series, each successive change is termed a Perception, and every monad is a living mirror, giving forth, after its own fashion, a picture of the universe, which is thus one vast collection of spiritual forces. These necessary elements of all concrete existence cannot all be reduced to one class or order, for they are distinguished tive power. Some are destitute of conscious by different degrees of perception and acperception, and these are the elements of which the material world is the result. Then there is the animating principle of the lower animals. There are also the self

which He secures, without fail, those ends which He contemplated when the universe issued from his hands. The phenomena attendant on that fruitful theme of philosophical disputation, the union of soul and body,-of the self-conscious monad and the related monads of an inferior order,-are counted capable of explanation on the same general principle. The successive changes

conscious souls of men, containing in Geometer can find the state of the unithemselves the fountains of necessary truth. verse past, present, and to come. In the And these three classes of created forces attributes of the Uncreated and Supreme, or substances must have a sufficient reason is to be found the sufficient reason for a for their existence. There cannot be an Pre-established Harmony in all that He infinite series of contingents, and, if there has made. This explains the nature of could, the final reason even of such an in- the changes of creation. The apparent finite series could be found only in a ne-action of finite monads upon each other, cessary substance. Creation must thus in- is really the result of that original harvolve the existence of One Supreme Infimonious arrangement of God, in virtue of nite, the monas monadum, from whom all that is finite has been derived, and in whose existence it all finds its explanation. This Supreme substance is God. He is the fountain of all reality. The attributes of the created monads, as far as they are perfect, result from the pefection of God; as far as they are imperfect, from the necessary imperfection of the creature.* Having in these conclusions, as he con-of the soul must exactly tally with those of ceived, demonstratively refunded concrete the body; yet without any mutual action. being into its elements, and related all They are related as two clocks, of which created elements to the One uncreated and the one points to the hour exactly as the supreme, Leibnitz would next find the other strikes; or as separate parts of the mutual relations of the several elementary same clock, for Leibnitz likens the whole forces of creation. As the monads can- universe to a time-piece which was wound not have either figure or extension in up in the act of creation, and which thencethemselves, their co-existence and rela- forward pursues its own movements hartions must sufficiently account for the phe-moniously for ever.* Mind and matternomena of extension, duration, and body. the realm of final causes, and the realm of Space and Time have thus merely an ideal efficient causes-are thus in necessary and relative existence. They result from harmony. And a like harmony must obthe relation of monads, regarded as co-ex-tain between reason and religious faithisting or in succession. Further, the ele- the kingdom of nature, and the city of ments of creation being absolutely desti- God.

tute of parts and extension, cannot mutu- This last harmony links the theological ally influence one another. Inter-causa- with the merely philosophical part of the tion is thus excluded from the real uni-system of Leibnitz; and introduces us to verse, and is confined to the phenomenal, his philosophy of religion. A question which is governed by mechanical law. Yet may be asked,-If the universe-moral as the universe is ideally related in the mind well as physical-is a self-regulating maof God, and of each creature, in propor-chine, is not the Creator seemingly excludtion as his ideas approximate to the Divine. ed from the government of His creation; God, "in the beginning," launched the elements into being, having resolved for each one a determinate history throughout eternity, and a history which should harmonize with that of every other. This mutual relation is beautifully illustrated, when we are told that from the given state of any monad at any time, the Eternal

and if not thus excluded, how is He related to the sin and misery which it contains? That the apparent manner of His relations to the creation should be what it is, results, he thinks, from our relative knowledge, which must be implicated with the idea of time. In reality, this pre-established harmony is a revelation of the Divine perfection in a scheme of Optimism. Every *The Monadologie of Leibnitz is discussed in possible universe was, from eternity, the pieces presented for the competition (Sur le Systeme des Monades) proposed by the Berlin

*

A comparison of this doctrine of pre-estab Academy of Sciences, and which, with the suc-lished harmony with the late Dr. Brown's Theocessful prize dissertation by T. H. G. Ju-ti, were ry of Cause and Effect, illustrating their partial published at Berlin in 1748. Each side in the similarity and partial contrast, might tend to excontroversy has its able defenders among the wri-cite an important train of metaphysical speculaters of these curious disquisitions.

tion.