by one of the most distinguished writers | the world. I first directed my attenon this subject, Mr. Romanes. I ven- tion to their powers of seizing and ture to think, however, that there is swallowing. Selecting one about eighbetween the uniform performance of teen hours old for definite experiment, instinct, on the one hand, and the con- I placed before him three small pieces scious knowledge of reason on the of white of egg, moving them about a other, a vast field of animal and human little in front of him with a long pin to activity which I would distinguish from draw his attention to them. He soon both by the application of the term pecked at one of these and seized it at "intelligence." I am well aware that the fifth attempt, swallowing it a little the term "intelligence " is by the awkwardly. The next he struck at the usage I advocate somewhat narrowed second attempt, but not fairly, so that down. I am well aware that Mr. it was thrust aside. Transferring his Romanes and others use the word attention, therefore, to the third piece intelligence as synonymous with he seized it and swallowed it at the reason; " but there is no one conven- third attempt. An hour later I tried ient word that can take its place. And him again with egg and crumb of since Mr. Romanes has collected a most bread. He generally struck the morsel interesting body of facts and observa- at the second or third peck, though he tions in a volume under the title "Ani- sometimes failed to seize it. Once he mal Intelligence," it has seemed to me struck and seized at the first attempt. that the word "intelligence" is, in Later in the day I caused a small fly to this field of inquiry, that best fitted to walk across my experimental poultryexpress the wide region of mental ac- yard, in front of the chicks ; most of tivity which lies between instinct and them took no notice, but one, whom I reason. In place, then, of the twofold will call Blackie, followed and pecked division into instinct and reason, I ad- at it. He caught it at the seventh atvocate a threefold division into instinct, tempt and ate it; an hour later he intelligence, and reason; and it is my caught another at the fourth peck, and present purpose to endeavor to define subsequently a blue-bottle after twelve and illustrate the limits of the middle shots. This, however, he dropped and term of these three, namely intelli- left uneaten. gence. This, be it noted, is a separate question from that which inquires. whether animals have the faculty of reason. I shall incidentally express an opinion on that question; but it is, I repeat, a matter which is distinct from the immediate subject of this article.

The other chicks still

took no notice whatever of flies.

These experiments and observations seem therefore to show that the skill in seizing is not perfect at birth, and that some practice is necessary. I have spoken only of morsels of food; but I soon found that they would peck at It will be well, first, to pay some at- almost any small object I placed before tention to the difference between intel- them, and if small enough almost anyligence and instinct, and since concrete thing was eaten, grain, sand, crumbs, examples are more interesting than ab- or little bits of a chopped-up wax stract definitions, I will describe some match. Still later, when they were of the experiments and observations from two to five days old, they would I have lately made on young chicks. peck at, but showed more discrimThe eggs from which in due course ination as to swallowing, all sorts of they emerged were taken from the hen things, pellets of paper, buttons, beads, two or three days before the time of bits of limestone, cigarette ash, their hatching was fulfilled, and were placed own and their neighbor's toes repeatin an incubator. The little birds, edly, each other's eyes occasionally, which were of a good crossed breed the black-beaded head of a pin, the end with strains of Plymouth rock, Dork- of a match, the point of a penknife, a ing, and game, had therefore no mater- gold seal, my ring, and so forth. All nal help in gaining some experience of were pecked at and examined, but the

their notice a large Carabus beetle. If I threw a piece of screwed-up paper among them they sounded the danger churr and ran off. When I sneezed, or clapped my hands, or played a sharp chord on the violin, off they went; and I do not think they had any instinctive acquaintance with violins.

larger objects with some timidity. An ing and churring and now scuttling ordinary Bryant and May wooden away in terror, when I introduced to match, for example, was for some time too fearsome an object for any but Blackie to tackle. On the third day four of them pecked at a burning cigarette end more than once, but sometimes were stopped by a whiff of the smoke and then shook their heads and wiped their bills in an exceedingly comical fashion. After a minute or two they went off, but returned occasionally. When the cigarette was out and cold they came and looked at it, and in one case the chick, after looking but not pecking, wiped its bill.

I did not give them water till the morning of the second day, when they were from twenty to thirty hours old. I then placed a shallow tin of water among them; of this they took no notice. Several chanced to run through it, but still took no notice, which surprised me. Then one chanced, as he stood in it, to peck at his toes. He at once lifted his head in the characteristic way and drank repeatedly; the others still took no notice; but presently Blackie stood at the side and pecked at a bubble near the brim; he then drank. It seemed as if the stimulus of water on the bill at once suggested the action of drinking. As he stood and drank others came up and pecked at the troubled water, and then they too drank.

Then I gave

I will further illustrate their want of innate knowledge of the things of this world by one or two more examples. I had fed them occasionally on small worms an inch or so in length. I then took similar sized pieces of worsted wool of a rich red-brown color and threw them among my chicks. The avidity with which they were seized was remarkable, and most exciting were the chases after the fortunate birdling who had secured a worsted worm. I could not succeed in satisfying them with worsted, and eventually desisted lest my experiments should lead to serious indigestion. Some hours later I cut off a piece six inches long and threw it among them. Instantly there was the danger churr, and to a chick they feared to tackle that monstrous worm. them a somewhat smaller piece, four inches long; this they regarded doubtfully, but one (not Blackie this time) picked it up and ran off with it. There was much pulling of it one from anAll this seems to show how necessary other, but soon it was dropped. Occaexperience, be it never so little, is to sionally it was picked up again and the young chicks. They have to find run off with, but eventually it was left out the nature of things, but they learn unnoticed. The pleasures of eating rapidly and surely. They certainly worsted began to pall. I threw in seem to have no instinctive knowledge smaller pieces but they excited little of things. Mr. Spalding describes the interest; one was run off with and instinctive terror of young turkeys soon dropped, but eventually eaten. when they heard the cry of a hawk. I Two others were allowed to remain do not question the fact that they untouched. I left the four-inch piece. showed fear, but I am disposed to Presently I was roused from my writquestion whether they had any instinc-ing by sounds of excitement and little tive knowledge that it was a hawk. In pattering feet. Blackie had seized the any case my own chicks gave the very piece and was being chased for the characteristic danger churr, a most prize. Escaping from the yard in marked and peculiar note, at any loud, strange, and unusual sound, or on sight of any alarming object. It was not a little amusing to see them, now stand

which the chicks were confined by leaping over the fender, he ran to the corner of my study, and after extreme efforts swallowed it.

It may be said that to supply worm- | But it is a reflex act, the performance like worsted was a piece of base and of which is accompanied by consciousunnatural deception. I will give one ness, if we use the word consciousness more case in which there was no de- in its broadest sense to describe any ception. In special reference to certain sort of feeling, dim or clear, vague or oft-quoted observations of Mr. Spal-distinct. And the rôle of consciousding's I was desirous of ascertaining ness on the matter of pecking is to whether my chicks had an instinctive select the adequate responses and to knowledge of the difference between steady the muscular mechanism to its a blue-bottle and a bee. Now Blackie work. Let us describe the organic was intimately acquainted with blue- motor reflexes as due to innate capacity bottles and liked them well. When I for motor response. Then in the anplaced a bee in my experimental poul-imal kingdom we find that the responses try-yard most of the chicks were afraid which are the outcome of this innate of it, as indeed they were of blue- capacity are variable in their adequacy. bottles; but Blackie without hesitation My chicks, for example, at first made snapped it up and ran off with it, then bad shots as well as occasional good he dropped it, shook his head much shots. Now the greater the variability and wiped his bill repeatedly. I do and the greater the initial percentage not think he had been stung, if so he of inadequacy, the more necessity is quickly got over any ill effects and was there for acquisition of skill by the happy and eager about other things in individual. On the other hand, the a few minutes; more probably he had less the variability and the smaller the tasted the poison. In any case he no initial percentage of inadequate relonger took any interest in that bee. sponse, the less the necessity for any Some hours later on the same day (his individual acquisition of skill. fifth) I placed beneath a glass tumbler And now we can give a good working in my yard a blue-bottle and a small definition of instinct in its objective humble-bee, from both of which a por-aspect. Instinctive activities, in their tion of the wings had been (of course theoretical perfection, are those in painlessly) removed. Blackie and one which there is no variability, in which other pecked at both, seen through the percentage of inadequacy is nil, the glass. I then let the bee escape; and in which, therefore, there is no Blackie snapped it up, ran off with it, necessity for any intelligent acquisition and soon swallowed it. Another small of skill. If my chicks had pecked perhumble-bee he went for at once, dis- fectly from the first they would have abled it by dashing it against the ground had this instinct in perfection. As it with his bill, and swallowed it. Both was they required a little intelligence, of these humble-bees had stings. I acting by and through experience, to was rather surprised at the results of perfect their activities. The instincts these experiments, but give them as were very nearly, but not quite, perthey are recorded in my notes taken fect. down at the time.

Now, how shall we describe instinct ? I go back to my little chick in its early efforts at pecking. Here we have a motor response to a certain stimulus. And there can be very little question that the motor response is, as we are apt to say, purely mechanical, or as we should more correctly say, purely organic. It is of the nature of a reflex act, like our own winking, or the closure of the hand of a sleeping child on your finger placed within its palm.

So much in illustration of the distinction between instinct and intelligence. I shall have a harder task in drawing the distinction between intelligence and reason; not because, as I believe, the distinction is a less real and valid one, but because it is more subtle, and involves a somewhat closer analysis of the activities of the mind.

Let us endeavor to build up, stage by stage, from the foundations we have already laid. Animals and men come into the world endowed with an

are beyond its reach. It is thus in advance of the proverbial baby that cries for the moon. What does this imply? It does not imply, as some would tell us, that the chick has au accurate knowledge of distance. It is we who have the knowledge of distance, not the chick. It does imply, however, that, in fairly accurate co-ordination with certain movements of the eye and head, there are those complex actions which are involved in pecking; and that these responses are only evoked when the object is within certain limits of distance. Moreover, on the second day, if not on the first, the chick will walk several inches towards pieces of egg placed beyond its reach. And this involves yet further co-ordination.

innate capacity for active response to | relation of means to ends how far, in certain stimuli. This is part of their a word, does intelligence, as distinorganic inheritance. The response may guished from reason, extend? Let us, be from the first an accurate and ade-in endeavoring to answer this question, quate response; in such cases we term continue to build upwards from the it instinctive. But more frequently the basis of the innate capacity for reresponses have a variable amount of sponse. It is clear that my little chicks inaccuracy and inadequacy; in such could not peck with more or less initial cases the animal, as a matter of ob- accuracy at morsels of food without served fact, has a power of selective seeing them. But the seeing, in the control over the responses; and this first instance, is probably rather an power of selective control in the activi- organic than a mental act. Nevertheties which are essential to daily life, is less, it is presumably, from the first, at the first stage of intelligence. Now least, accompanied by consciousness. why do I say intelligence and not rea- | And it is remarkable that the young son? Well, let us go back to Sydney chick does not peck at morsels which Smith's description of the reasoned act: "If I desire to do a certain thing," he says, adopt certain means to effect it, and have a clear and precise notion that those means are subservient to that end, then I act from reason." But have we any ground for supposing that a chick, a few hours old, has "a clear and precise notion that those means are subservient to that end"? Is it probable that the baby who is learning to put a crust into his mouth and not into his eye has any precise notions of the relation of means to ends? If not, then here we have a class of activities, and a very important class, those, namely, which are essential to daily life, which are perfected by means of a faculty which is not reason, and which I would term There can be very little question that intelligence. To paraphrase Sydney the whole of this chain of events, turnSmith I would say, "If I adopt certain ing the head, pecking, walking, is of means to effect a given end, but have the nature of a complex organic reno clear and precise notion of the rela- sponse to stimulus; that the sight of tion of means to end, then I act not the small white morsel is just the touch from reason but from intelligence." of the trigger that, so to speak, fires And to modify a well-known statement off this complicated train of activities, of Mr. Romanes, I would say that, the ability to perform which is innate. "unlike reason, intelligence implies no But we have every reason to suppose conscious knowledge of the relation that the performance of these actions is between the means employed and the accompanied by feeling or consciousends attained, though it may be exer-ness. So that in these early days of cised in selective adaptation to circum-life the consciousness of the chick is, if stances novel alike to the experience of the individual and to that of the species."

How far then does this intelligent adaptation to circumstances, as opposed to the truly rational perception of the

one may so say, entering into and taking possession of its organic inheritance. And consciousness, like a wise heir, at once proceeds to set its estate in order and to remedy such imperfections as it finds therein. In the case

of the chick the inheritance is already | what keen appreciation of the nice reso well organized that it requires very lation of means to ends! Not so, I little individual control of conscious- think. No knowledge, no appreciation. ness to put things in excellent working That would involve reason; and the trim. In the case of the human infant, chick is guided by intelligence, not by however, there are noteworthy differ- reason. ences. In the first place, the heir The distinction between the two is comes into possession when he is, as still, no doubt, wanting in clearness. compared with the chick, far younger It is one not easy to establish without and less mature; in the second place, entering into questions of technical his inheritance is of vastly greater psychology, which would here be out extent, with commercial relations of of place. It may, however, be illusfar greater range and complexity; and trated from human experience. When in the third place, it has been the cus- we look out upon the world we see tom for generations of his ancestors around us a number of familiar objects, that during his minority he should be on any one of which we can fix our aided in the administration of his es- attention. As I look up from my page tate by faithful stewards, and should I see, for example, my cat asleep upon be instructed therein by wise tutors. the hearth-rug. Fixing my eyes upon Still, notwithstanding these differences, her, I have a definite "impression," it remains true that the infant con- which is in the focus, so to speak, of sciousness, like the chick conscious- my consciousness. But besides the ness, has, more gradually, no doubt, cat, I see much else, dimly and indefiand with more external aid, to enter nitely the fender, the fireplace, and into and take possession of its organic so forth. These are not in the focus of inheritance; and, no matter how much my vision or my consciousness; they he is aided and instructed, he has to do form the setting of the visual picture so individually and for himself. None of the cat, and we may conveniently can share this task with him, or per- call them " marginal "' in consciousform it for him. With this inher- ness. At some future time I may very itance, moreover, he must make the probably be reminded of this trivial inbest of life. No kindly uncle or aunt cident in my experience. I shall then can bequeath to him a new estate. have in my mind's eye an "idea" of The inheritance is his to deal with as the cat. This will occupy the focus of he may and can, within the assigned my consciousness, and around the focus limits, for his very power of dealing there will be a more or less hazy marwith the inheritance is part of the in-gin. heritance itself.

We are getting, however, too far from our foundations, and must return to the stage up to which we have, I trust, securely built. The chick, or the child, in the early hours or days of life acquires skill in the management of that part of organic inheritance which we call its bodily organs. And this skill involves what we adult human beings, who have knowledge of these things, call relations in space and time, relations of cause and effect, relations of means to ends. The chick of a week old will pick a fly off your fingers and not so much as touch the finger itself. What accurate knowledge, some will say, of position and distance!

There can be very little question that the higher animals have impressions and ideas analogous to ours. When a dog sees before him a nice meaty bone, I have no doubt that he has a quite clear-cut and definite impression. And when he comes home hungry, after a long walk, and going down into the kitchen, looks up wistfully at the cook, I, for one, should not feel disposed to question that he has in his mind's eye a more or less definite idea of a bone.

So much for the impressions and ideas themselves. They are both matters of the focus of vision, or of the focal region of that wider field of vision which is embraced by the mind's eye. But in our own experience, and I think