GREEK. possessing stations of dignity. French from "abreviare ;"" acier" from “axi,” rather than from "acies;" "acre" from agros," rather than from "ager;" and "aile" from "ily," rather than from "ala;"-this, I say, would surely be perfectly ridiculous. Some have even gone so far as to say Haughtiness is often mistaken for greatness (grandeur). He who is osten-that" omelette" comes from "omeilatatious of greatness, displays vanity. ton," because "meli" in Greek, signifies But one becomes weary and exhausted honey, and "oon" an egg. In the with writing about greatness. According "Garden of Greek Roots," there is a to the lively remark of Montaigne, more curious derivation still: it is precannot obtain it, let us therefore take our tended that "diner" (dinner) comes revenge by abusing it." from "deipnein," which signifies supper. GREEK. 6. we Observations_upon the Extinction of the As some may be desirous of possessing a list of the Greek words, which the the language of the Gauls, independently Marseilles colony might introduce into of those which came through the Ro Aboyer, perhaps from bauzein. Ir is exceedingly strange that, as Mar-mans, we present the following one:seilles was founded by a Greek colony, scarcely any vestige of the Greek language is to be found in Provence, Languedoc, or any district of France; for we cannot consider as Greek the terms which were taken, at a comparatively modern date, from the Latins, and which had been adopted by the Romans themselves from the Greeks so many centuries before. We received those only at second hand. We have no right to say that we abandoned the word Got for that of Theos, rather than that of Deus, from which, by a barbarous termination, we have made Dieu. It is clear that the Gauls, having received the Latin language with the Roman laws, and having afterwards received from those same Romans the Christian religion, adopted from them all the terms which were connected with that religion. These same Gauls did not acquire, until a very late period, the Greek terms which relate to medicine, anatomy, and surgery. After deducting all the words originally Greek which we have derived through the Latin, and all the anatomical and medical terms which were, in comparison, so recently acquired, there is scarcely anything left; for surely, to derive abreger" from " brakus," rather than 66 Blesser, from the aorist of blupto. Gargarizer, from gargarizein. Siffler, perhaps from siffloo. I am astonished to find so few words remaining of a language spoken at Marseilles, in the time of Augustus, all its purity; and I am particularly astonished to find the greater number of the Greek words preserved in Provence, signifying things of little or no utility, while those used to express things of the first necessity and importance are utterly lost. We have not a single one remaining that signifies land, sea, sky, the sun, the moon, rivers, or the principal parts of the human body; the words used for which might have been expected to be transmitted down from the beginning through every succeeding age. Perhaps we must attribute the cause of this to the Visigoths, the Burgundians, and the Franks; to the horrible barbarism of all those nations which laid waste the Roman empire, a barbarism of which so many traces yet remain. GUARANTEE. It is not said that the doge of Venice guaranteed that peace which was concluded in his palace. When Philip Augustus made peace in 1200 with King John of England, the principal barons of France and Normandy swore to the due observance of it, as cautionary or guaranteeing parties. The French swore that they would take arms against their king if he violated his word, and the Normans, in like manner, to oppose their sovereign if he did not adhere to his. One of the constables of the Montmorenci family, after a negotiation with one of the earls of March, in 1227, swore to the observance of the treaty, upon the soul of the king. We must regard as a mutual guarantee the ancient alliance between France and Castile, of king to king, kingdom to kingdom, and man to man. The practice of guaranteeing the states of a third party was of great antiquity, although under a different name. The Romans in this manner guaranteed the A GUARANTEE is a person who renders possessions of many of the princes of himself responsible to another for some- Asia and Africa, by taking them under thing, and who is bound to secure him in their protection until they secured to the enjoyment of it. The word (garant)themselves the possession of the terriis derived from the Celtic and Teutonic tories thus protected. "warrant." In all the words which we nave retained from those ancient languages we have changed the w into g. Among the greater number of the nations of the north, warrant still signifies assur- We do not find any treaty in which ance, guarantee; and in this sense, it the guarantee of the states of a third means, in English, an order of the king, party is expressly stipulated for before as signifying the pledge of the king. that which was concluded between Spain When in the middle ages kings con- and the States General in 1609, by the cluded treaties, they were guaranteed on mediation of Henry IV. He procured Doth sides by a considerable number of from Philip III. King of Spain, the reknights, who bound themselves by oath cognition of the United Provinces as free to see that the treaty was observed, and and sovereign states. He signed the even, when a superior education qualified guarantee of this sovereignty of the seven them to do so, which sometimes hap- provinces, and obtained the signature of pened, signed their names to it. When the same instrument from the King of the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa ceded Spain; and the republic acknowledged so many rights to Pope Alexander III. that it owed its freedom to the interferat the celebrated congress of Venice, inence of the French monarch. It is princi1117, the emperor put his seal to the instrument which the pope and cardinals signed. Twelve princes of the empire guaranteed the treaty by an oath upon the gospel; but none of them signed it. pally within our own times that treaties of guarantee have become comparatively frequent. Unfortunately these engagements have occasionally produced ruptures and war; and it is clearly ascertained that the best of all possible guarantees is of St. Angelo; Louis XIV. compelling power. GREGORY VII. Pope Alexander VII. to ask his pardon, and erecting even in Rome itself a monument of the pope's submission; and, within our own times, the easy subversion of that steady, and apparently most formidable support of the papal power, the society of Jesuits in Spain, in France, in Naples, in Goa, and in Paraguay-all this furnishes decisive evidence, that, when potent princes are in hostility with Reme, the quarrel is not terminated in their confusion; they may occasionally bend before the storm, but they will not eventually be overthrown. BAYLE himself, while admitting that Gregory was the firebrand of Europe, concedes to him the denomination of a great man. "That old Rome," says he, "which plumed itself upon conquests and military virtue, should have brought so many other nations under its dominion, redounds, according to the general maxims of mankind, to her credit and glory; but, npon the slightest reflection, can excite little surprise. On the other hand, it is a subject of great surprise to see new When the popes walked on the heads Rome, which pretended to value itself of kings, when they conferred crowns by only on an apostolic ministry, possessed a parchment bull, it appears to me, that of an authority under which the greatest at this extreme height of their power and monarchs have been constrained to bend.grandeur they did no more than the Caron may observe, with truth, that Caliphs, who were the successors of Mathere is scarcely a single emperor who homet, did in the very period of their has opposed the popes without feeling decline. Both of them, in the character bitter cause to regret his resistance. Even of priests, conferred the investiture of at the present day the conflicts of power-empires, in solemn ceremony, on the ful princes with the court of Rome almost most powerful of contending parties. always terminate in their confusion." I am of a totally different opinion from Bayle. There will probably be many of a different one from mine. I deliver it however with freedom, and let him who is willing and able refute it. 3dly. Maimbourg says What no pope ever did before, Gregory VIII. deprived Henry IV. of his dignity of emperor, and of his kingdoms of Germany and Italy." Maimbourg is mistaken. Pope Za1st. The differences of the princes of chary had, long before that, placed a Orange and the Seven Provinces with crown on the head of the Austrasian Rome did not terminate in their confu- Pepin, who usurped the kingdom of the sion; and Bayle, who, while at Amster-Franks; and Pope Leo III. had declared dam, could set Rome at defiance, was a happy illustration of the contrary. The triumphs of Queen Elizabeth, of Gustavus Vasa in Sweden, of the kings of Denmark, of all the princes of the north of Germany, of the finest part of Helvetia, of the single and small city of Geneva, the triumphs, I say, of all these over the policy of the Roman court, are perfectly satisfactory testimonies that it may be easily and successfully resisted, both in affairs of religion and government. 2dly. The sacking of Rome by the troops of Charles the Fifth; the Pope (Clement VII.) a prisoner in the castle the son of that Pepin emperor of the west, and thereby deprived the Empress Irene of the whole of that empire; and from that time, it must be admitted, there has not been a single priest of the Romish church who has not imagined that his bishop enjoyed the disposal of all crowns. This maxim was always turned to account when it was possible to be so. It was considered as a consecrated weapon, deposited in the sacristy of St. John of Lateran, which might be drawn forth in solemn and impressive ceremony on every occasion that required it. This prerogative is so commanding; it raises to such a height the dignity of an exorcist born at Velletri or Civita Vecchia, that if Luther, Ecolampadius, John Calvin, and all the prophets of the Cevennes, had been natives of any miserable village near Rome, and undergone the tonsure there, they would have supported that church with the same rage which they actually manifested for its destruction. 4thly. Everything, then, depends on the time and place of a man's birth, and the circumstances by which he is surrounded. Gregory VII. was born in an age of barbarism, ignorance, and superstition; and he had to deal with a young debauched inexperienced emperor, deficient in money, and whose power was contested by all the powerful lords of Germany. We admit, that Gregory VII. would have been little less than an ideot had he not exerted his strongest efforts to secure a complete influence over this powerful princess; and to obtain, by her means, a point of support and protection against the Germans. He became her director, and, after being her director, her heir. I shall not, in this place, examine whether he was really her lover, or whether he only pretended to be so; or whether his enemies merely pretended it; or whether, in his idle moments, the assuming and ardent little director did not occasionally abuse the influence he possessed with his penitent, and prevail over a feeble and capricious woman. In the course of human events nothing can be more natural or common; but as usually no registers are kept of such We cannot believe, that, from the cases; as those interesting intimacies betime of the Austrasian Charlemagne, thetween the directors and directed do not Roman people ever paid very willing obedience to Franks or Teutonians: it hated them as much as the genuine old Romans would have hated the Cimbri, if the Cimbri had obtained dominion in Italy. The Othos had left behind them in Rome a memory that was execrated, because they had enjoyed great power there; and, after the time of the Othos, Europe it is well known became involved in frightful anarchy. take place before witnesses, and as Gregory has been reproached with this imputation only by his enemies, we ought not to confound accusation with proof. It is quite enough that Gregory claimed the whole of his penitent's property. 5thly. The donation which he procured to be made to himself by the Countess Matilda, in the year 1077, is more than suspected. And one proof that it is not to be relied upon, is, that not merely this deed was never shown, but that, in a second deed, the first is stated to have been lost. It was pretended that the donation had been made in the fortress of Canosse, and in the This anarchy was not more effectually restrained under the emperors of the house of Franconia. One half of Germany was in insurrection against Henry IV. The Countess Matilda, grand duchess, his cousin german, more power-second act it is said to have been made ful than himself in Italy, was his mortal enemy. She possessed, either as fiefs of the empire, or as allodial property, the whole duchy of Tuscany, the territory of Cremona, Ferrara, Mantua, and Parma; a part of the Marches of Ancona, Reggio, Modena, Spoletto, and Verona; and she had rights, that is to say pretensions, to the two Burgundys; for the imperial chancery claimed those territories, according to its regular practice of claiming everything. at Rome. These circumstances may be considered as confirming the opinion of some antiquaries, a little too scrupulous, who maintain that out of a thousand grants made in those times (and those times were of long duration) there are more than nine hundred evidently counterfeit. There have been two sorts of usurpers in our quarter of the world, Europerobbers and forgers. 6thly. Bayle, although allowing the title of great to Gregory, acknowledges allegiance which they had sworn to their at the same time that this turbulent man emperor." disgraced his heroism by his prophecies. Many parliaments of the kingdom were He had the audacity to create an em-desirous of having this legend burnt by peror, and in that he did well, as the the executioner: but Bentivoglio, the Emperor Henry IV. had made a pope.nuncio,-who kept one of the actresses Henry deposed him, and he deposed Henry. So far there is nothing to object;-both sides are equal. But Gregory took it into his head to turn prophet; he predicted the death of Henry IV. for the year 1080; but Henry IV. conquered, and the pretended Emperor Rodolphus was defeated and slain in Thuringia by the famous Godfrey of Bouillon, a man more truly great than all the other three. This proves, in my opinion, that Gregory had more enthusiasm than talent. I subscribe with all my heart to the remark of Bayle, that "when a man undertakes to predict the future, he is provided against everything by a face of brass, and an inexhaustible magazine of equivocations." But your enemies deride your equivocations; they also have a face of brass like yourself; and they expose you as a knave, a braggart, and a fool. 7thly. Our great man ended his public career with witnessing the taking of Rome by assault, in the year 1083. He was besieged in the castle, since called St. Angelo, by the same Emperor Henry IV., whom he had dared to dispossess, and died in misery and contempt at Salerno, under the protection of Robert Guiscard the Norman. I ask pardon of modern Rome, but when I read the history of the Scipios, the Catos, the Pompeys, and the Cæsars, I find a difficulty in ranking with them a factious monk who was made a pope under the name of Gregory VII. at the opera, of the name of Constitution, as his mistress, and had by her a daughter called la Légende; a man otherwise ex. tremely amiable, and a most interesting companion,-procured from the ministry a mitigation of the threatened storm; and, after passing sentence of condemnation on the legend of St. Gregory, the hostile party were contented to suppress it and to laugh at it. HAPPY-HAPPILY. WHAT is called happiness is an abstract idea, composed of various ideas of pleasure; for he who has but a moment of pleasure is not a happy man, in like manner that a moment of grief constitutes not a miserable one. Pleasure is more transient than happiness, and happiness than felicity. When a person says-I am happy at this moment, he abuses the word, and only means I am pleased. When pleasure is continuous, he may then call himself happy. When this happiness lasts a little longer, it is a state of felicity. We are sometimes very far from being happy in prosperity, just as a surfeited invalid eats nothing of a great feast prepared for him. The ancient adage, "No person should be called happy before his death," seems to turn on very false principles, if we mean by this maxim that we should not give the name of happy to a man who had been so constantly from his birth to his last hour. This continuity of agreeable moments is rendered impossible by But our Gregory has obtained even a the constitution of our organs, by that of yet finer title; he has been made a saint, the elements on which we depend, and at least at Rome. It was the famous by that of mankind, on whom we depend Cardinal Coscia who effected this canon-still more. Constant happiness is the ization under Pope Benedict XIII. Even philosopher's stone of the soul; it is a an office or service of St. Gregory VII. great deal for us not to be a long time was printed, in which it was said, that unhappy. A person whom we might that saint "absolved the faithful from the suppose to have always enjoyed a happy |