offensive language towards him. Henry retaliated with blows; and the quarrel, it is said, reached such a height, that but for the interference of the Prince Robert it might have terminated fatally. John of Salisbury relates that in a battle between the French and English in 1117, an English knight seizing the bridle of Louis le Gros, and crying out, "The king's taken. Louis struck nim to the ground with his sword, saying "Ne scais tu pas qu'aux échecs on ne prend pas le roy? ?" "Dost thou not know that at chess the king is never taken ?"

We now approach the period when the first regular treatise on chess made its appearance. This was the work of Jacobus de Cosollis, or Cesolis, presumed to have been written before the year 1200. Verci says that the original work was written either in Latin or in French, and that the Latin manuscript is still preserved in the University of Padua. Two manuscript copies of this work are preserved in the British Museum. The first is entitled Liber moralis de Ludor Scaccor, and it is a quarto of fifty leaves of parchment, twenty-nine lines on a page. The first page has a miniature border, in gold and colours, representing flowers, a peacock, and other birds, with two angels. The first letter, which is a Gothic M of about an inch square, is ornamented with a king playing at chess with a monk. The colours are vivid and the drawing is good; eleven more capitals are embellished with flourishes in gold, and the writing is neat and wellpreserved. The other copy is written on paper, and unornamented. The work of Cesolis was translated into English by William Caxton, in 1474, but previous to that time there had appeared a curious manuscript of which we must first take account. It was called A Morality on Chess, and was ascribed to Pope Innocent III., but seems to have been written by an English monk named Innocent, about the year 1400. As it is not without its merits, and boldly points out the abuses which creep into the highest offices, we give it at full length; observing, however, that the description of the moves of the king and queen does not agree with that in the modern game, while the bishop's move is restricted to three squares, as in the "courier" game, which we shall have to notice hereafter.

This whole world is nearly like a chess-board, of which the points are alternately white and black, figuring the double state of life and death, grace and sin.

The families of this chess-board are like the men of this world; they all come out of one bag, and are placed in different stations in life. They have different appellations: one is called king, another queen, the third rook, the fourth knight, the fifth alphin (bishop), the sixth, pawn.

The condition of the game is, that one piece takes another; and when the game is finished, they are all deposited together, like man in the same place. Neither is there any difference between the king and the poor pawn: for it often happens that when the pieces are thrown promiscuously into the bag, the king lies at the bottom; as some of the great will find themselves after their transit from this world to the next.

In this game the king goes into all the circumjacent places and takes everything in a direct line, which is a sign that the king must never omit doing justice to all uprightly, for in whatever manner a king acts it is reputed just, and what pleases the sovereign has the force of law.

The queen, whom we call Fers, goes and takes in an oblique line; because women being of an avaricious nature, take whatever they can; and often, being without merit or grace, are guilty of rapine and injustice.

The rook is a judge who perambulates the whole land in a straight line, and should not take anything in an oblique manner, by bribery or corruption, nor spare any one; else they verify the saying of Amos, "Ye have turned justice into gall, and the fruit of righteousness into hemlock."

But the knight in taking, goes one point directly, and then takes an oblique circuit, in sign that knights and lords of the land may justly take the rents due to them, and their just fines from those who have forfeited them, according to the exigence of the case. Their third point being oblique applies to knights and lords when they unjustly exact.

The poor pawn goes directly forward in his simplicity;

The alphins are the various prelates of the church, pope, archbishop, and their subordinate bishops, who rise to their sees not so much by divine insipiration as by royal power, interest, entreaties, and ready money. These alphins move and take obliquely three points, for the minds of too many prelates are perverted by love, hatred, or bribery, not to reprehend the guilty or bark against the vicious, but rather to absolve them from their sins: so that those who should have extirpated vice are, in consequence of their own covetousness, become promoters of vice and advocates of the devil.

In this chess game the devil says "check" whenever he insults and strikes one with his dart of sin; and if he that is thus struck cannot immediately deliver himself, the devil resuming the move says to him "mate," carrying his soul along with him to prison, from which neither love nor money can deliver him, for from hell there is no redemption. And as huntsmen have various hounds for taking various beasts, so the devil and the world have different vices, which differently entangle mankind, for all that is in this world is lust of the flesh, lust of the eyes, or proud living."

ON THE CUSTOM OF THE MAUNDY. THE reader may probably have noticed in Almanacs, that the day immediately preceding Good Friday in every year is called Maundy Thursday. The old customs connected with this day, and still partially observed, are very curious, and well worthy of general attention at this season of the year. But, before we proceed to detail them, it will be proper to state the opinions given as to the origin of the term maundy.

Our old writers, about the time of the Reformation, apply this word to the commands, then written "commaunds," of Christ, which He delivered to his disciples on the day before his crucifixion. These commands of our Blessed Lord related to the faith and practice of the future apostles while upon earth, and of the Christian church throughout all ages. He ordained the Holy Communion of His body and blood, to be observed by them and all faithful Christians till His second coming. He washed the feet of the disciples, (a common and necessary service in the East, which the climate renders desirable to be done,) in token of that humility which it behoved them to imitate; and He laid His affectionate injunctions upon them, that they should love one another as he had loved them. Christ was put to death on the Friday: the day before is thus termed "Maundy Thursday," as being the day of the last commands of our Lord, before the fulfilment of those sufferings in His own person, which should cleanse us from all sin.

Following the other authority, we find that Maundy Thursday is so named from the maunds, wherein were formerly contained gifts, which the king was wont to distribute on that day, to a certain number of poor persons at Whitehall. The Saxon word "mand," which afterwards became maund, is the name for a basket, (French manne,) and by consequence for any gift, or offering, contained in the basket.

The sort of basket

just referred to, is an open one with handles.

The day of which we speak was likewise once called Shere Thursday, (and by corruption Chare Thursday,) because as we are told, in ancient times, "people would that day shere theyr hedes and clypp theyr berdes, and so make them honest agenst Easter-day." In the miraculous legend of St. Brandon, it is related that he sailed with his monks to the Island of Sheep, about the year 565 A.D. This island, which abounded in sheep, was set down, in the ancient maps, in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, near the Equator. Here on "shere

epithet of the "washing of the feet." After suitable preparations are made, twelve men and twelve women are selected from the oldest and most deserving paupers. After attending mass, the emperor and empress, with the whole court, enter to the sound of solemn music, and approach the tables where the paupers are sitting, whom they serve with different courses of meats, and with wine. The tables are then removed, and silver bowls are placed beneath the feet of the men and women; the emperor washing the feet of the former, and the empress the feet of the latter, while the grand chamberlain, in a humble posture, pours water upon the feet of each one in succession from a golden urn. This rite concludes amidst the sounds of sacred music.

In Spain, one of the public sights of the town of Seville on Maundy Thursday, is a splendid cold dinner which the archbishop gives to twelve paupers, in commemoration of the apostles. The dinner is to be seen laid out on tables filling up two large rooms in the palace. Having partaken of a more homely dinner in the kitchen, these guests are furnished with large baskets to take away the splendid commons allotted to each in separate dishes, which they sell to the gourmands of the town. Each, besides, is allowed to dispose of his napkin, curiously made up into the figure of some bird or quadruped, which people buy as ornaments to their china cupboards, and as specimens of the perfection to which some of the poorer nuns have carried the art of plaiting. At two o'clock in the afternoon, the archbishop, attended by his chapter, repairs to the cathedral, where he performs the ceremony of washing the feet of the twelve paupers in a large silver basin: they are seated on a platform erected before the high altar, and the prelate, stripped of his silk robes, and kneeling successively before each, goes through a pompous and ostentatious imitation of our blessed Lord's real humility.

In Rome, the Pope commemorates the washing of the disciples' feet by officiating in person. In this case, there are thirteen, instead of twelve, representatives of the apostles, the additional one representing the angel that once came to the table of twelve that St. Gregory was serving. The twelve are old priests, but he who represents the angel is very young. They are all dressed in loose white gowns, and white caps on their heads, and clean woollen stockings, and seat themselves in a row along the wall, under a canopy. When the Pope enters and takes his seat at the top of the room, the whole company kneel in their places and turn towards him; and on his hand being extended in benediction, they all rise and reseat themselves. The splendid garments of the Pope are then taken off; and, clad in a white linen robe which he wears under the others, and wearing the bishop's mitre instead of the tiara, he approaches these pilgrims, as they are called; then, taking from an attendant cardinal a silver bucket of water, he kneels before each of them successively, wets each foot, and touches it with a square fringed cloth; he then kisses the leg, and gives the cloth, together with a sort of white flower or feather, to the pilgrim. This ceremony is done so quickly, that it consumes scarcely two minutes. The Pope then returns to his throne, puts on his robes of white and silver again, and proceeds to the dining-hall; the thirteen priests are then seated in a row at the table, which is spread with a variety of dishes, and adorned with a profusion of flowers. The Pope gives the blessing; and walking along the side of the table opposite to them, hands each of them bread, plates and cups of wine. They regularly rise up to receive what he presents; the Pope then goes through the forms of service, gives them his parting benediction, and leaves them to finish their dinner. They carry away what they cannot eat, and receive a small present in money besides.

The custom of the Maundy is supposed to have been of great antiquity, as it is first referred to Augustine, who lived about the year 400 a. D. It has been ordi

narily confined to royalty, but in the Earl of Northumberland's Household Book, which belongs to the early part of the sixteenth century, we find mention made of "Al maner of thyngs yerly yeven by my lorde of his maundy, ande my laidis, ande his lordshippe's childeren."

SILK FROM SHELL-FISH.

WE have lately noticed an attempt made to procure silk, adapted for the purposes of the manufacturer, from spiders' nests. We have now to speak of a similar, and rather more successful, attempt with respect to shellfish.

It is well known that the common edible muscle has the power of affixing itself to rocks, or to the shells of other muscles, with great firmness; and it has been ascertained that if the animal is accidentally torn from its hold, it has the power of replacing the threads of viscous matter, by which it thus attaches itself to different objects. The threads issue from the part of the shell where it naturally opens, and though each in itself is too delicate to possess much strength, yet the almost infinite number which are put forth, acting as so many small cables, keep the fish steady in its position, amidst all the power of the waves.

It is not to the muscle, however, that we refer as a silk-producing animal, but to a fish belonging to the same order, and in many respects resembling it. This is the pinna, a much larger fish than the muscle, its shell being sometimes found two feet long. The shell is bivalve, fragile, and furnished with a beard; the valves hinge without a tooth. The pinna like the muscle attaches itself to rocks; it is also found with the sharp end of its shell embedded in mud or sand, while the rest of the shell is left free to open in the water. Like the muscle, it has the power of spinning a viscid matter from its body; but the threads of the pinna are of great delicacy and beauty, being scarcely inferior to the single filament of the silkworm. Both the pinna and the muscle are furnished with an organ, which is sometimes called a tongue, sometimes a foot, from its performing the offices of both those members. The latter of these offices is denied to it by some naturalists, who affirm that the pinna always remains in the same place; but though its powers of locomotion are very limited, yet it appears that an occasional change of situation is effected by means of the organ we have alluded to. The extremity of the foot (as we may then call it,) is fixed to some solid body, and being contracted in its length, the whole fish is necessarily drawn towards the spot where it has fixed itself; and by a repetition of these movements the animal arrives at its destination. The principal use of this organ, however, appears to be that of forming the byssus, which is the name given to the collection of threads by which the animal attaches itself at various points to some fixed spot. The formation of these threads is exceedingly curious and remarkable. They are not spun, like those of the spider and of the silkworm, by being drawn out of the body, but they are cast in a mould, where they remain until they have acquired a certain degree of hardness and consistency. This mould is contained in the tongue of the animal, and forms a deep longitudinal furrow extending from the root to the circumference, having its sides so constructed as to fold over it, thereby making it into a canal. On the outside, this canal appears like a crack, being almost covered by the flesh on either side, but internally it is wider, and surrounded with circular fibres. The tongue is furnished with glands for the secretion of the peculiar liquor which forms the byssus, and from these it is poured into the canal, where it dries into a solid thread. When it has acquired sufficient tenacity the animal protrudes its foot, and applies and fixes the end of the thread to the surface of some object in its vicinity: the whole length of the canal is then suddenly opened, and the thread,

which is fixed by one end to the tendon at the base of the foot, and by the other to the solid surface in question, is disengaged from its mould. The canal is now ready to receive another portion of the viscid secretion, (which secretion exists in great abundance in this animal as well as in muscles,) and the process is gone through as before. Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in different directions round the shell, and it has been observed that the animal puts each thread in succession to the test, by swinging itself round and stretching it. Thus, as Reaumur has observed, the workmanship of the land and sea animals, in forming the same production, is very different. Spiders, caterpillars, &c., form threads of any required length, by making the viscous liquor of which the filament is formed pass through fine perforations in the organ appointed for spinning. But the pinna and muscle form their threads in a mould situated within the organ, and which determines the length of each filament. The work of the land animals therefore may be likened to that of the wiredrawer, while the labours of the sea-animals may be compared to those of the founder who casts metals in a mould.

It was at first supposed that the pinna, as well as the muscle, had the power of transferring the threads thus formed from one spot to another; but subsequent observation has proved that wherever the animal takes up its position, there it must remain, unless by any accident the threads become severed, when it immediately begins to form others, and every fibre employed in fixing itself in a fresh situation is newly formed at the time it is required. The old threads appear quite useless, and have, by way of experiment, been cut away from the body as close as was considered safe to the animal, when they were replaced by others, in as short a space of time as that employed by others not so mutilated. We learn from Poli, that the byssus in silk-producing fish is of the same structure as hair, and that at the extremity it is furnished with little cups, or suckers, by which it adheres firmly. In the pinna, the liquid matter is produced slowly, not more than four or five threads being formed in the course of a day and night. It is so exceedingly glutinous in its nature, that it will take a firm hold on the smoothest bodies. When the animal is disturbed in its operations, the threads are more hastily formed, and in consequence possess less strength than those which are produced at the ordinary rate.

The pinna is found on the coasts of Italy and Provence, and in the Indian Ocean. The largest and most remarkable species inhabits the Mediterranean Sea. It is exposed to the attacks of many enemies, especially of the cuttle-fish, which is its deadly foe. It is said, (and the alleged fact has been celebrated in poetry,) that the pinna is warned of approaching enemies by a faithful ally, which is ever at hand to afford its important services. This ally is a small animal of the crab kind, which takes refuge in the shell of the pinna, and compensates by its quickness of sight for the deficiency which the pinna, in common with the rest of its species, experiences in that respect. There is so much that appears fabulous in this reputed friendship of the pinna and the crab, that we willingly omit the several details, and proceed to notice the method employed to procure the byssus, and the uses to which that substance has been applied.

Although the fineness and beauty of this remarkable production is almost equal to that of the silkworm's thread, and has procured for the animal that forms it the common name of "the silkworm of the sea," yet, when attached in filaments of almost innumerable extent to the rocks below the surface of the sea, it requires considerable force to disengage the tuft of threads. At Toulon, an instrument called a cramp is employed by the fisherman for this purpose. This is an iron fork, with prongs eight feet in length, and six inches apart;

the prongs are placed at right angles with the handle, the length of which is regulated by the depth of the water, and varies from fifteen to thirty feet. The pinna are seized, separated from the rock, and brought to the surface by means of this instrument.

It is uncertain whether the term byssus, as used by the ancients, is always applicable to this particular substance. Aristotle speaks of byssus as being made from the beard of the pinna, and it is certain that this kind of silk was employed in the manufacture of certain fabrics in very ancient times. But it is also said that by the name of byssus, the ancients meant indiscriminately any material that was spun, the quality of which was finer and more valuable than woollen threads. Sometimes the produce of the pinna is distinctly mentioned as being wrought into articles of dress; thus Procopius speaks of a robe composed of byssus of the pinna, as having been presented by the Roman emperor to the satraps of Armenia. This substance is evidently referred to by a. writer of the year 1782, who says:-"The ancients had a manufacture of silk, and which about forty years ago was revived at Tarento and Regio in the kingdom of Naples. It consists of a strong brown silk, belonging to some sort of shell, of which they make caps, gloves, stockings, waistcoats, &c., warmer than the woollen stuffs, and brighter than common silk. I have seen such kind of shells myself; I think it was of the pecten kind, but cannot be sure."

At

On the shores where the larger kind of pinnæ abound, the manufacture above alluded to is still carried on. Palermo the silk is wrought into various articles of dress of a beautiful description. The stockings manufactured from this material are so fine, that a pair of them can be easily enclosed in a snuff-box of the ordinary size, and yet their warmth is such, that they are said to be more useful in gouty and rheumatic cases, than appropriate for common wear. This material will probably remain a rarity, except in the countries where it is produced, for it cannot be obtained in sufficient abundance to ren der it a commodity for exportation. In England it merely forms a curious addition to some of our cabinets, while its existence as an article of manufacture is unknown.

To the objection that philosophy and the study of nature are proved by experience to lead to disbelief in revelation, the answer is easy. They are not friends to false views of religion; and this is the point of soreness. They are conversant with truths, and generate a discernment for truth: they detect falsehood, and are condemned because falsehood fears them. If ever they have led to so false a conclusion as religious disbelief, the reason is not that they have been pursued, but that they have not been pursued far enough. Partial studies may be injurious: they have led to doubt and error; but the real cause is then no other than that it has been under superficial inquiries into revelation; it is ignorance united to vanity. In each case alike the cure must be sought in more knowledge, as this is ever the remedy for the evils which follow from a little.--MACCULLOCH.

HABIT is the kindest friend or cruelest foe to human welfare. When it assumes the latter character, it comes ever in the most delusive and seductive forms. It soon substitutes its own irresistible will, for that of its victim; and triumphantly points to the gulf to which it bears him. The fly, caught in the spider's web, is a faint illustration of the power of habit. The fly knows, from the first moment, his destiny, and struggles to escape. The gambler, the drunkard, the felon, where and how do they learn that they have been caught in the web of habit?-S.

*LONDON:

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FRESH-WATER FISH.

I. THE SALMON, (Salmo salar.).

IN commencing our account of Fresh-water Fish, it may appear somewhat contradictory to place first on the list the common Salmon, an inhabitant alternately of fresh and salt water, who, as Isaac Walton quaintly observes, "like some persons of honour and riches, which have both their winter and summer residences, has the fresh rivers for summer, and the salt water for winter, to spend his life in." Nevertheless, we have the example of the worthy angler himself to sanction our calling him the "King of fresh-water Fish;" and, in truth, the salmon is a native of the streams and not of the

sea.

The salmon family includes, besides the common salmon, a large proportion of the fresh-water fish of Europe, and of those peculiar to the lakes and rivers of other countries. The members of this family delight in clear water and in rapid currents; therefore, in fishing for them, the angler is generally led to healthful and luxuriant scenery where Nature displays all her freshness and beauty. Many of the other tenants of fresh water are found in ponds, pools, or stilly parts of the stream, and the pleasure of fishing in such situations is much less, as is also the value of the expected prize.

The form of the common salmon (Salmo salar) is elegant, and well adapted for swift motion through the The body is scaly, of a lengthened oblong shape; VOL. XVIII,

water.

the nead small and smoota; the first dorsal fin is nearly in the centre of the back, and the ventral fin immediately under it; in like manner, the second dorsal and anal fins correspond with each other; while the pectoral fin is small, pointed, and placed very low down towards the throat. The teeth are very numerous.

When very young, this fish is called the "smelt," or "smoult," the meaning of which is "little one;" as it advances in size, it acquires the name of "grilse," or "gilse;" and it is not till it is full grown, and has gained its proper flavour and colour, that it is called salmon. When first the salmon comes from the sea, it has a fine metallic lustre, sufficient to show that it is a migratory fish, for it is only those which visit the salt waters that display this peculiar appearance. The head and back at this time are bluish black, passing through lighter shades to silvery white at the belly. There are also certain dusky spots on the upper part of the fish, which, together with much of the metallic lustre, disappear on its remaining long in the river.

The time of the salmon leaving the sea, and ascending the rivers, is so extremely variable, both with respect to different rivers, and also with respect to different fish in the same rivers, that we can only speak in a general manner on this subject. The young fish, and a few of the old ones, usually appear in the mouths of rivers at a very early season, even before all those of the former year have descended; but the fishing at this time is injudicious, because the descending fish are apt to be taken

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