of political realism that he stresses the education of the "the labouring classes".1 He wanted the promotion of the unity of living vernacular languages and national festivals.3 Rama emphasized the raising up of the condition of the backward and suppressed strata of society. He preached the concept of 'aristocracy of labour". He felt that it was impractical to relegate all manual work to one section-the Sudras as had been done in 66 India. Everyone was to cultivate the spirit of renunciation of egoistic self-interest but there was to be the simulteneous cultivation of the spirit of manual labour. Hence Rama said: "The sannyasa spirit must be wedded to the pariah hands.” (b) From Nationalism to Universalism Although Rama was a great patriot he was also a great universalist. He refused to be tied down to any one creed or country. He claimed to be an American and Christian and not an Indian or Hindu alone. If the spirit or Atman alone is real and everything else is the Atman then all man-made differences and distinctions. sink. From the standpoint of this high transcendent Atman every person is this same sole entity. Hence Rama preached the brotherhood of man. He said: "All the suffering in this world, all the misery and all the anguish in this Universe is due only to your trying to violate this most sacred law, this most sacred truth, the Law of laws, the brotherhood of mankind, nay, the oneness of each and all.' National unity was a step towards universal unity with God. Hence Rama said: "A person can never realise his unity with God, the All except when unity with the whole Nation throbs in every fibre, of his frame." (c) Theory of Freedom and Individualism Rama was a passionate believer in freedom. He was a champion of freedom at both the metaphysical and sociological levels. From the metaphysical standpoint the spirit is free, it is "Independence itself.8 He said "Vedanta means liberty, freedom". Freedom he p. 290. 7 1 In Woods of God-Realization, Vol V. p. 159 2 In Woods of God-Realization, Vol. V. p. 110. 3 Ibid., p. 109. 4 Ibid., p. 19. 5 Ibid., p. 19. 6 Swami Rama, "The Brotherhood of Man," In Woods of Gad Realization Vol. IV, Swami Rama, "National Dharma." In Woods of God-Realization, Vol. VII, p. 12. 8 In Woods of God-Realization, Vol. VI, (1942 Edition), p. 71. 7-2016P-VI considered as the birth right and the inner nature of man. He wrote in one of his poems: "Free, free is every one to me Once Rama gave a Hegelian definition of liberty. He said: "True liberty is the accurate appreciation of necessity.' 99 2 Freedom does not mean immunity from the operations of spiritual eternal divine law. It does not indicate revelling in the enjoyments of the limited local self. It connotes instead conformity to the commands and canons of the universal spirit. Hence in Rama's thought there is no antithesis between necessity and freedom. Freedom is the voluntary acceptance of the laws of the spirit or laws of God. Rama wanted the concrete practical application of Vedantic teachings. Vedanta could not be limited only to transcendental purpose. The application of Vedanta to the mundane world was essential. This involved a universalization of liberty and equality. Hence Rama said :-"Perfect democracy, equality, throwing off the load of external authority, casting aside the vain accumulative spirit, throwing overboard all prerogatives, the spurning of the airs of superiority and shaking off the embarrassment of inferiority, is Ve lanta on the material plane." 3 3 At the sociological level Rama stood for "freedom of thought, freedom of action.". He said: "Let every man have equal liberty to find his own level.” As a champion of freedom Rama felt that any loyalty to a particular creed or dogm or prophet was a detraction from the freedom which is the essence of the spirit. He declared: "Rama should not enslave you and take away your indepen lence, as was done by the previous prophets." In the Western World for some time there had been waged an unholy war between religion and science. Rama deplored it. He stated that in Europe it was not Christianity but "Churchianity" that held sway." Rama stood for the application of rational criteria to opinions. He felt that truth stands on its own strength and does not need the 1 From Rama's poem entitled "Transcendentalism." 2 In Woods of God-Realization, Vol V. p. 164. 3 Swami Rama, "Forest Talks No, 11," In Woods of God. Realization, Vol. V, pp. 136-137. In Woods of God-Realization, Vol. VI, p. 70. Ibid., p. 72. • Ibid., P. 78. endorsement of numbers. Like John Stuart Mill, Rama Tirtha also pointed out that "majority is no proof of truth.' 2 1 Rama was a great Vedantist but he was not tied to the old dogmas of the scriptures. He refused to acknowledge even Samkara as the last word on the Vedanta. He pleaded for the restoration of the authority of free and independent thinking. Mere parade of scholastic Sanskrit learning failed to satisfy him. He ridiculed the contemporary Indian practice of admiring everything contained in the Sanskrit scriptures. He was a protagonist of independent thinking.3 As a Vedantist Rama was an in lividualist. He wanted the realization by all of the freeself-consciousness of the spirit. Hence hẹ said: "Assert your individuality against all society and all nations and everything.' He agreed that both Vedanta and socialism taught the neutralization of attachment to property. In this sense he said the Vedantic monks living in the Himalayas were practising socialism. But he felt that the Vedantic concept of Atman or universal oneness was essential to provide the foundation for the socialist teachings of equality, fraternity and love. Hence he formulated his philosophy of "Vedanta-Socialism. He was careful, all the while, however, to point out also the essence of spiritual individualism. He said: "First of all as to the name Socialism, Rama would prefer to call it Individualism. The word Socialism gives prominence to the idea of the rule of society, but Rama says, the right spirit of Truth is to assert the supremacy of the individual against all the world, all the universe. 9 6 915 (d) Theory of Divine Law Swami Rama believed in a moral and spiritual governance of the world. He accepted the inexorably binding character of moral and spiritual norms. By a supreme operative efficacy the moral and spiritual laws assert themselves and whosoever, individual or group or nation, contravenes them is met with disaster. None can lightly flout the supreme spiritual law of unity. Even the government is bound by this divine law. Rama wrote: "Even Governments whose socalled laws do not conform to the divine law of the trishul (or the cross), work their own destruction. Shylock-like laying stress on VII 2 In Woods of God-Realization Vol. V, pp. 87-89, 3 Rama Tirtha The Present Needs of India," In Woods of Go1-Realization, Vol. 35, PPQuoted in Puran Singh, The Story of Swami Rama, p. 237. 5 Swami Rama, "Vedanta and Socialism," In Woods of God-Realization, Vol. VI, (PP, 167-174), p. 173. • Ibid., p. 167, personal rights, thinking this or that mine, feeling a sense of possession, saying 'the law grants it' is to contradict the real law according to which the only haq (right, prerogative) we have, in Haq (God and every other right is wrong. If nobody else recognises this principle the Sannyasin at any rate ought to work it into life." 5. CONCLUSION as Swami Rama Tirtha was a great Vedantic teacher and sage. Although he had no training in the technical terminology of political philosophy, he had a good mastery of eastern and western philosophical literature specially of the idealistic school. Vedantic idealism, interpreted at the social and political levels, signified to him the neutralization of the absorption in the petty desires and gratifications of the limited self and a progressive ascent towards cosmic consciousness. Nationalism as interpreted by Rama was a stage towards this cosmic consciousness. He preached an active worship of Mother India through the realization of the sacredness of her poorest children. This conception of nationalism as a dynamic sense of identification with the inhabitants of the land is a remarkable contribution to the realm of political ideas. Although Rama has not gone into the detailed explanation of this notion, this statement in itself is significant because it is poles asunder from the usual acosmic and illusionistic interpretation of Vedanta. Rama's dynamic spiritual nationalism is the support and not the antithesis of a wider inclusive concept of universal fraternity. India has embarked upon the great adventure of democracy and social-economic justice. In order to realize these ideals it is essential that the people be imbued with a moral fervour. Without a moral renaissance the political and economic salvation of the people is an impossibility. At such an important and critical phase in the historical evolution of the country, the spirit and teachings of Rama can serve a supreme political purpose. They can strengthen the moral fibre and character of our youth. They can reinforce the values of liberty, equality, justice and fearlessness. Hence the great writings of Swami Rama Tirtha contained in the eight volumes of In Woods of God-Realization although not political in the formal and technical sense of the term may serve as the foundations of a morally oriented democratic political philosophy. 1 Swami Rama, "The Law of Life Eternal", In Woods of God Realization, (Sixth edition) Vol. III, p. 15. ROLE OF IMAGINATION IN PHILOSOPHY REENA MOOKHERJEE Imagination is a term whose role is easily intelligible in the spheres of Painting, Literature and Psychology. But in the sphere of philosophy it sounds something unusual, if not foreign. Thus the attempt to introduce a discussion of the role of imagination in philosophy is handicapped just at the outset. Infact by proposing the discussion we invite two very opposing attitudes. There is, first of all, the ordinary man who might simply laugh at the attempt or at best consider that Psychology is being injected into the sphere of philosophy. Or, there may be others (including the scientists even) who might approve a discussion of 'imagination' in philosophy, suggesting thereby the idea of the phantastical, the imaginal nature of philosophical speculations. We, however, intend to convey something different-something that would form a third attitude-an attitude neither wholly psychological, nor wholly phantastical. I We might start with Plato by referring to his 'Theatetus' and the 'Sophist'. The Sophist speaks of two forms of image-making, the making of likenesses and the making of Semblances. The former is termed 'eikon', the latter 'phantastike.' Unlike 'likenesses', 'Semblances' not being complete reproductions of the original, involve an element of deceit and illusion. From this it is tempting to suggest that Plato was conscious of the illusory nature of the Imagination. Coming to "Theatetus' we find nothing very explicit on imagination, except in connection with Plato's discussion of 'false judgments,' specially of false judgments described as 'mistaking'. These are judgments in which the two things wrongly identified are objects of different sorts-"one a present object of perception, the other a memory-image". To explain the class of false judgments known as mistaking, Plato brings in what is called Memory. Memory is conceived by him, firstly, as a Wax Tablet, and secondly, as an AVIARY. The former makes it possible to know and yet not to know one and the same thing. Thus I may have direct acquaintance with X, and so possess an image of it. But on certain occasion I might confuse or mistake Y with X. This shows that it is possible to know and yet not to know something. This explains mistaken judgments |