case fits its narrator. The prologue was composed in Chaucer's later life, perhaps about the year 1387. Some of the actual tales were doubtless written with the Canterbury idea in mind, but it is certain that others were older poems which the author revised for the purpose. The plan was not half carried out; there were to be two tales for each pilgrim on the way to Becket's shrine at Canterbury, and two on the return. But for such tales as we have and for the glimpses at that pilgrim company, now in the Tabard Inn and now riding by Rochester and Sittingbourne, or by the mysterious Bob-up-and-Down, under Blee forest, we may be thankful enough. So fresh and bright are these glimpses that one feels sure Chaucer must have made the journey himself. Another considerable poem of this period is the unfinished Legende of Good Women, in which he professes to atone for some of his satire against the sex. The prologue to this poem exists in two versions and contains passages which have been repeatedly quoted as autobiographical. Nothing, says the writer, can take him from his books, save only when the month of May comes with its birds and flowers. Then "Farewel my boke and my devocion!" He goes on to speak of his worship of the daisy. Probably the passage just quoted is true enough for Chaucer's case; but the praise of the daisy, along with other parts of this prologue, is taken directly from the French. In spite of Chaucer's official duties and the studious habits which he professed, he must have taken part in the pursuits and diversions of his class. What some of these diversions were may be gathered from the numerous allusions to the contest for excellence between the Flower and the Leaf; indeed a later poem under that title was long attributed to Chaucer himself. The poet, in the Prologue to the Legende of Good Women, says that he has not undertaken to write poetry on behalf of the Leaf against the Flower or for the Flower against the Leaf; but it is certain that "English court society, in the time of Richard II, entertained itself by dividing into two amorous orders the Leaf and the Flower -and by discussing, no doubt with an abundance of allegorical imagery, the comparative excellence of those two emblems or of the qualities they typified." It is supposed "that the two orders sometimes appeared in force, each member bedecked with the symbol to which he or she had sworn allegiance." One of the French poets, Deschamps, in a charming little poem, names Philippa of Lancaster as heading the faction of the Flower. Another poem by the same writer, sent along with certain of his works to the English poet, not only praises Chaucer as the great translator but mentions an Englishman, "presumably a friend of both poets," about whom much is known and whose story throws considerable light on the ways of Chaucer himself.1 If this friendship be established, there is great probability that Chaucer must have taken his side in a far more serious contest, and supported, along with John of Gaunt, the followers of Wyclif against the orthodox party of Rome. It is usual to accept Chaucer as a good churchman, in spite of his satire, and to reject the insinuation that he was a Lollard; and if his works alone decided the question, there would be no quarrel with this conclusion. But John of Gaunt was an ardent 1 These facts are taken from an interesting paper by Professor Kittredge," Chaucer and Some of his Friends," Modern Philology, I, 1. defender of Wyclif; Chaucer was of the Duke's party; and the life of Chaucer's supposed friend Clifford adds weight to this evidence for the poet's sympathy with reform. It seems probable that he was Sir Lewis Clifford, somewhat older than Chaucer and a member of the household of the Black Prince. Like the Duke, he was a patron and protector of the Lollards. Froissart praises him as a valiant knight for his jousting in a tournament near Calais; and besides this he was active in diplomatic and domestic affairs. Very interesting is his repentance and the recanting of the Wyclif heresy. In his death-bed will he calls himself God's traitor, and wishes to be buried in the farthest corner of the churchyard. The story of Chaucer's own death-bed repentance, told by Thomas Gascoigne, should not be rejected, thinks Professor Kittredge, without some consideration of "this unquestionably authentic document, which expresses the last wishes of a very gallant and accomplished gentleman." It is further suggested that Chaucer's son, "litell Lowis," was named after this Sir Lewis Clifford. Such are the fleeting glimpses that may be obtained of Chaucer's amusements as well as of the friendships and sterner duties to which his position called him. In much clearer light stand Chaucer's literary friends and the disciples who carried on his poetic work when he was gone. The moral Gower, who composed poetry in three languages, a man of wealth and position, was chosen by Chaucer as one of his two representatives while he was abroad on diplomatic service in 1378. To him and to the "philosophical Strode," another friend distinguished for his learning, Chaucer dedicates the Troilus. Gower, who outlived Chaucer eight years, pays a compliment in the Confessio Amantis, his long English poem, to Chaucer as the disciple and poet of Venus herself, for whose sake he has made "dittees" and "songes glade," with which the whole land is filled. Thomas Hoccleve, who, with John Lydgate, tried to continue Chaucer's work, must have been about thirty years old when his master died. His well-known lament is in a singularly affectionate as well as reverent vein. To this disciple the dead poet is not only "flower of eloquence," "universal father in science," "this land's very treasure and richesse," Tully for rhetoric, Aristotle for philosophy, and Virgil in poetry, but also the friend and the patron. "Alasse! my fadir fro the worlde is goo, My worthi maister Chaucer, hym I mene! 99 Chaucer had good need of friends in the latter part of his life, not to praise his poetry, but to prop his tottering fortunes. 1386 has been noted as the time when his prosperity was at its height; but his party soon went out of power, and he began to lose his appointments. He gave up his house, and sold two of his pensions for ready money. To crown his misfortunes, in 1390 he was twice the victim of highwaymen, who robbed him of the King's money. The kind of friend in need for him was a friend at court; and such was Henry Scogan, who, as we have already seen, was in favor under Henry IV and deemed worthy to read a moral ballad to the young princes; at this earlier date he is asked to say a good word to Richard II: "Scogan, that knelest at the stremes hede Of grace, of alle honour, and worthynesse! Forgete1 in solitarie wildernesse; Yet, Scogan, thenke on Tullius kyndenesse; This must have been in 1393; the " end of the stream" means Chaucer's enforced residence near Woolwich, while the "stream's head" is the court at Windsor. Another poem of this kind, and probably the last that we have of Chaucer's composition, was addressed to the friendship of royalty itself. Henry IV, who took the kingdom from his cousin Richard in 1399, was the son of Chaucer's old patron John of Gaunt. To him the poet sends The Compleynt of Chaucer to his Purse. This purse Chaucer calls his dear lady, is sorry that it is so light, and unless it be once more heavy, he must die. He yearns to hear the blissful clink within and to see again the gorgeous yellow of the coin. He is shaved, he says, as close as a friar. With this last flicker of his humor goes a very pathetic envoy to the king, whom he calls Conqueror of Albion and Ruler both by his descent and free election. The answer seems to have been prompt, for a new pension was assigned to him in October, 1399. He leased a house in the garden of St. Mary's chapel at Westminster, and for a scant year enjoyed his new prosperity. On October 25, 1400, he died and was buried in Westminster Abbey, first of the long line who have made the Poets' Corner famous. As for his personal appearance, we have not only his humorous description of himself when his turn comes to narrate in the Canterbury Pilgrim throng, but the portrait which Hoccleve had painted in the manuscript of that poem from which we have already quoted lines of eulogy and affection. Dr. Furnivall describes the face as 1 Forgotten. 2 Make mention of. |