RULE XVII.—An adjective may be used as an adverb in poetry.

Thus we find in Dr Johnson the line

=

(i) The reason for this is that in O. E. adverbs were formed from adjectives by adding e. Thus brightë was brightly, and deepë=deeply. But in course of time the e fell off, and an adverb was just like its own adjective. Hence we still have the phrases: "He works hard;" ""Run quick!" "Speak louder!" "Run fast!" "Right reverend," etc.

(ii) Shakespeare very frequently uses adjectives as adverbs, and has such sentences as: "" Thou didst it excellent!" "Tis noble spoken!" and many more.

RULE XVIII-A participle is a pure adjective, and agrees with its noun.

Thus, in Pope

"How happy is the blameless vestal's lot,

The world forgetting, by the world forgot!"

where forgetting, the present active participle, and forgot, the past passive participle, both agree with vestal (" the vestal's lot" being = the lot of the vestal).

(i) But while a participle is a pure adjective, it also retains one function of a verb-the power to govern. Thus in the sentence, "Respecting ourselves, we shall be respected by the world," the present participle respecting agrees with we, and governs ourselves.

RULE XIX. The comparative degree is employed when two things or two sets of things are compared; the superlative when three or more are compared.

Thus we say "James is taller than I; but Tom is the tallest of the three."

(i) Than is a dialectic form of then. "James is taller; then I (come)." (ii) The superlative is sometimes used to indicate superiority to all others. Thus Shakespeare says, "A little ere the mightiest Julius fell;" and we use such phrases as, "Truest friend and noblest foe." This is sometimes called the "superlative of pre-eminence."

(iii) Double comparatives and superlatives were much used in O.E., and Shakespeare was especially fond of them. He gives us such phrases as, "a more larger list of sceptres," "more better," "more nearer," most worst," "most unkindest cut of all," etc. These cannot be employed now.

RULE XX. The distributive adjectives each, every, either, neither, go with singular nouns only.

Thus we say: (i) Each boy got an apple. (ii) Every noun is in its place. (iii) Either book will do. (iv) Neither woman went.

Either and neither are dialectic forms of other and nother, which were afterwards compressed into or and nor.

REMARKS ON EXCEPTIONS.

1. There are some adjectives that cannot be used attributively, but only predicatively.

Such are well, ill, ware,

aware, afraid, glad, sorry, etc. (But we say and-in a different sense- -"a sorry nag.")

a glad heart,"

"He was glad ;" but we cannot say "A glad man." Yet

(i) We say Wordsworth has

"Glad sight whenever new and old

Are joined thro' some dear home-born tie."

We also speak of "glad tidings."

(ii) We say "He was sorry; " but if we say "He was a sorry man," we use the word in a quite different sense. The attributive meaning of the word is in this instance quite different from the predicative.

2. The phrase "the first two" means the first and second in one series; "the two first" means the first of each of two series.

III. SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN.

RULE XXI.-Pronouns, whether personal or relative, must agree in gender, number, and person with the nouns for which they stand, but not (necessarily) in case.

Thus we say "I have lost my umbrella: it was standing in the corner."

(i) Here it is neuter, singular, and third person, because umbrella is neuter, singular, and third person.

(ii) Umbrella is in the objective case governed by have lost; but it is in the nominative, because it is the subject to its own verb was standing.

RULE XXII.-Pronouns, whether personal or relative, take their case from the sentence in which they stand.

66

Thus we say: The sailor whom we met on the beach is ill." Here sailor is in the nominative, and whom, its pronoun, in the objective.

(i) Whom is in the objective, because it is governed by the verb met in its own sentence. "The sailor is ill" is one sentence. "Him (whom=and him) we met" is a second sentence.

(ii) The relative may be governed by a preposition, as "The man on whom I relied has not disappointed me."

RULE XXIII.-Who, whom, and whose are used only of rational beings; which of irrational; that may stand for nouns of any kind.

(i) In poetry, whose may be used for of which. Thus Wordsworth, in the 'Laodamia,' has—

"In worlds whose course is equable and pure."

RULE XXIV.

The possessive pronouns mine, thine, ours, yours, and theirs can only be used predicatively; or, if used as a subject, cannot have a noun with them.

Thus we say: "This is mine." 66 Mine is larger than yours." But mine and thine are used for my and thy before a noun in poetry and impassioned prose: "Who knoweth the power of thine anger?"

RULE XXV.—After such, same, so much, so great, etc., the relative employed is not who, but as.

Thus Milton has

"Tears such as angels weep."

(i) Shakespeare uses as even after that—

"That gentleness as I was wont to have."

This usage cannot now be employed.

REMARKS ON EXCEPTIONS.

1. The antecedent to the relative may be omitted.

Thus we find, in Wordsworth's "Ode to Duty

"There are who ask not if thine eye
Be on them."

And Shakespeare, in "Othello," iii. 3. 157, has—

A Who steals my purse, steals trash."

And we have the well-known Greek proverb

2. The relative itself may be omitted.

(i) Thus Shelley has the line

"Men must reap the things

they sow."

(ii) And such phrases as, Is this the book you wanted?" are very

common.

3. The word but is often used for who + not.

be called the negative-relative.

Thus Scott has

"There breathes not clansman of my line

It may hence

But (who not) would have given his life for mine."

4. The personal pronouns, when in the dative or objective case, are generally without emphasis.

(i) If we say "Give me your hand," the me is unemphatic. If we say Give me your hand!" the me has a stronger emphasis than the give, and means me, and not any other person.

(ii) Very ludicrous accidents sometimes occur from the misplacing of the accent. Thus a careless reader once read: "And he said, 'Saddle me the ass;' and they saddled him." Nelson's famous signal, "England expects every man to do his duty," was once altered in emphasis with excellent effect. A midshipman on board one of H.M.'s ships was very lazy, and inclined to allow others to do his work; and the question went round the vessel: "Why is Mr So-and-so like England?" "Because he expects every man to do his duty."

IV. SYNTAX OF THE VERB.

1.-CONCORD OF VERBS.

We cannot say I writes, or He or The man write. We always say I write, He writes, and The man writes. In other words, certain pronouns and nouns require a certain form of a verb to go with them. If the pronoun is of the first person, then the verb will have a certain form; if it is of the third person, it will have a different form. If the noun or pronoun is singular, the verb will have one form; if it is plural, it may have another form. In these circumstances, the verb is said to agree with its subject.

All these facts are usually embodied in a general statement, which may also serve as a rule.

RULE XXVI.-A Finite Verb must agree with its subject

in Number and Person. Thus we say: "He calls," "They walk."

(i) The subject answers to the question Who? or What?

(ii) The subject of a finite verb is always in the nominative case. Or and nor are conjunctions which do not add the things mentioned to each other, but allow the mind to take them separately—the one excluding the other. We may therefore say :

RULE XXVII.-Two or more singular nouns that are subjects, connected by or or nor, require their verb to be in the singular. Thus we say : "Either Tom or John is going." "It was either a roe-deer or a large goat!"

On the other hand, when two or more singular nouns are connected by and, they are added to each other; and, just as one and one make two, so two singular nouns are equal to one plural. We may therefore lay down the following rule :—

RULE XXVIII.—Two or more singular nouns that are subjects, connected by and, require their verb to be in the plural. We say: "Tom and John are going." "There were a roedeer and a goat in the field."

Cautions.-(i) The compound conjunction as well as does not require a plural verb, because it allows the mind to take each subject separately. Thus we say, Justice, as well as mercy, allows it." We can see the truth of this remark by transposing the clauses of the sentence, and saying, “Justice allows it, as well as mercy [allows it].”

(ii) The preposition with cannot make two singular subjects into one plural. We must say, "The Mayor, with his attendants, was there." Transposition will show the force of this remark also: "The Mayor was there with his attendants."

RULE XXIX.—Collective Nouns take a singular verb or a plural verb, as the notion of unity or of plurality is uppermost in the mind of the speaker. Thus we say : "Parliament was dissolved." "The committee are divided in opinion."

(i) When two or more nouns represent one idea, the verb is singular. Thus, in Milton's "Lycidas," we find—

"Bitter constraint and sad occasion dear

Compels me to disturb your season due.