(i) She is really the feminine of the old demonstrative se, seo, thaet ; and it has supplanted the old A.S. pronoun heo, which still exists in Lancashire in the form of hoo.

(ii) The old and proper dative of it is him. The old neuter of he was e hit, the t being the inflection for the neuter.

(iii) Him, the dative, came to be also used as the objective. The oldest objective was hine.

9. The Personal Pronouns are often used as Reflexive Pronouns. Reflexive Pronouns are (i) datives; or (ii) objectives; or (iii) compounds of self with the personal pronoun. For example:

(i) Dative: “I press me none but good householders,” said by Falstaff, in "King Henry IV.," I. iv. 2, 16.

"I made me no more ado," I. ii. 4, 223.

'Let every soldier hew him down a bough."-Macbeth, V. iv. 6. (ii) Objective: Shakespeare has such phrases as I whipt me; I disrobed me; I have learned me. In modern English, chiefly in poetry, we have : He sat him down; Get thee hence! etc.

(iii) Compounds : I bethought myself; He wronged himself; etc.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

10. The Interrogative Pronouns are those pronouns which we use in asking questions. They are who, which, what, and whether.

(i) The word interrogative comes from the Latin interrogāre, to ask. Hence also interrogation, interrogatory, etc.

11. Who is both masculine and feminine, and is used only of persons. Its neuter is what. (The t in what, as in that, is the old suffix for the neuter gender.) The possessive is whose; the objective whom. The following are the forms:

(i) Who-m is really a dative, like hi-m. But we now use it only as an objective.

(ii) Whose may be used of neuters; but it is almost invariably employed of persons only.

12. Which formerly hwile-is a compound word, made up of the wh in who, and lc, which is a contraction of the O.E. lîc = like. It therefore really means, Of what sort? It now asks for one out of a number; as, Here are several kinds of fruits which will : you have?"

13. Whether is also a compound word, made up of who + ther; and it means, Which of the two?

(i) The ther in whether is the same as the ther in neither, etc.

RELATIVE OR CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS.

14. A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun which possesses two functions: (i) it stands for a noun; and (ii) it joins two sentences together. That is to say, it is both a pronoun and a conjunction. For example, we say, "This is the man whose apples we bought." This statement is made up of two sentences: (i) "This is the man;" and (ii) "We bought his apples." The relative pronoun whose joins together the two sentences.

(i) Relative Pronouns might also be called conjunctive pronouns. (ii) Whose, in the above sentence, is called relative, because it relates to the word man. Man is called its antecedent, or goer-before.

The word antecedent comes from the Lat. ante, before; and cedo, I go.

15. The Relative Pronouns are that; who, which; what. As and but are also employed as relatives.

(i) Who, which, and what are also combined with so and ever, and form Compound Relatives; such as whoso, whosoever, whatsoever, and whichsoever.

(ii) That is the oldest of our relative pronouns. It is really the neuter of the old demonstrative adj., se, seo, thaet. It differs from who in two respects: (a) It cannot be used after a preposition. We cannot say, "This is the man with that I went." (b) It is generally employed to limit, distinguish, and define. Thus we say, "The house that I built is for sale." Here the sentence that I built is an adjective, limiting or defining the noun house. Hence it has been called the defining relative.

Who or which introduces a new fact about the antecedent; that only marks it off from other nouns.

(iii) Who has whose and whom in the possessive and objective—both in the singular and in the plural.

(iv) Which is not to be regarded as the neuter of who. It is the form used when the antecedent is the name of an animal or thing. After a preposition, it is sometimes replaced by where; as wherein = in which ; whereto to which.

=

(v) What performs the function of a compound relative = that + which.. If we examine its function in different sentences, we shall find that it may be equivalent to—

(a) Two Nominatives; as in 'This is what he is" (=the person that). (b) Two Objectives; as in "He has what he asked for " (= the thing that). (c) Nom. and Obj.; as in "This is what he asked for" (= the thing that). (d) Obj. and Nom.; as in "I know what he is" (= the person that).

As

(vi) As is the proper relative after the adjectives such and same. is, however, properly an adverb. "This is the same as I had " is="This

is the same as that which I had."

(This is

(vii) But is the proper relative after a negative; as "There was no க man but would have died for her." Here but = who + not. like the Latin use of quin = qui + non).

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

16. An Indefinite Pronoun is a pronoun that does not stand in the place of a noun which is the name for a definite person or thing, but is used vaguely, and without a distinct reference. 17. The chief Indefinite Pronouns are one, none; any; other; and some.

(i) One is the best instance of an indefinite pronoun. It is simply the cardinal one used as a pronoun. In O.E. we used man; and we still find one example in the Bible-Zech. xiii. 5: "Man taught me to keep cattle from my youth." One, as an indefinite pronoun, has two peculiarities. It (a) can be put in the possessive case; and (b) can take a plural form. Thus we can say: (a) " One can do what one likes with one's own ;" and (b) "I want some big ones."

(ii) None is the negative of one. "None think the great unhappy, but the great." But none is always plural. No (the adjective) is a short form of none; as a is of an; and my of mine.

(iii) Any is derived from an, a form of one. It may be used as an adjective also either with a singular or a plural noun. When used as a pronoun, it is generally plural.

(iv) Other is

=

an ther.

The ther is the same as that in either, whether; and it always indicates that one of two is taken into the mind.

(v) Some is either singular or plural. It is singular in the phrase Some one; in all other instances, it is a plural pronoun.

ADJECTIVES.

1. An Adjective is a word that goes with a noun to describe or point out the thing denoted by the noun—and hence to limit the application of the noun; or, more simply,-

Adjectives are noun-marking words.

(i) Adjectives do not assert explicitly, like verbs. They assert implicitly. Hence they are implicit predicates. Thus, if I say, "I met three old men," I make three statements: (1) I met men; (2) The men were old; (3) The men were three in number. But these statements are not explicitly made.

(ii) Adjectives enlarge the content, but limit the extent of the idea expressed by the noun. Thus when we say "white horses," we put a larger content into the idea of horse; but, as there are fewer white horses than horses, we limit the extent of the notion.

2. An adjective cannot stand by itself. It must have with it a noun either expressed or understood. In the sentence

"The good are happy," persons is understood after good.

3. Adjectives are of four kinds. They are (i) Adjectives of Quality; (ii) Adjectives of Quantity; (iii) Adjectives of Number; (iv) Demonstrative Adjectives. Or we may say,— Adjectives are divided into

Qualitative.

ADJECTIVES

Quantitative.

Numbering.

Demonstrative.

These four answer, respectively, to the questions—

(i) of what sort? (ii) How much? (iii) How many? (iv) Which?

4. Qualitative Adjectives denote a quality of the subject or thing named by the noun; such as blue, white; happy, sad; big, little.

=

(i) The word qualitative comes from the Lat. qualis of what sort.
(ii) Most of these adjectives admit of degrees of comparison.

5. Quantitative Adjectives denote either quantity or indefinite number; and they can go either (i) with the singular, or (ii) with the plural of nouns, or (iii) with both. The following is a list :

:

(i) We find the phrases: Little need; little wool; much pleasure; more sense; some sleep, etc.

(ii) We find the phrases: All men; any persons; both boys; several pounds, etc.

(iii) We find the phrases: Any man and any men; no man and no men; enough corn and soldiers enough; some boy and some boys, etc.

6. Numbering or Numeral Adjectives express the number of the things or persons indicated by the noun. They are generally divided into Cardinal Numerals and Ordinal Numerals. But Ordinal Numerals are in reality Demonstrative Adjectives.

(i) Numeral comes from the Lat. numerus, a number. Hence also come numerous, numerical, and number (the b serves as a cushion between the m and the r).

(ii) Cardinal comes from the Lat. cardo, a hinge.

(iii) Ordinal comes from the Lat. ordo, order.

7. Demonstrative Adjectives are those which are used to point out the thing expressed by the noun; and, besides indicating a person or thing, they also indicate a relation either to the speaker or to something else.

(i) Demonstrative comes from the Lat demonstro, I point out. From the same root come monster, monstrous, &c.

8. Demonstrative Adjectives are of three kinds: (i) Articles; (ii) Adjective Pronouns (often so called); and (iii) the Ordinal Numerals.

(i) There are two articles (better call them distinguishing adjectives) in our language: a and the. a is a broken-down form of ane, the northern form of one; and before a vowel or silent h it retains the n. In some phrases a has its old sense of one; as in "two of a trade;” “all of a size," etc.

"An two men ride on a horse, one must ride behind."

Shakespeare (Much Ado about Nothing, III. v. 40).