the ruins of the Roman Empire was accompanied by the formation of new languages. The Germanic settlers in Italy, Gaul, and Spain were obliged to learn Latin-the colloquial language of those countries-in order to converse with the inhabitants. In so doing they corrupted and transformed it by their vicious pronunciation and dialect peculiarities, so that in course of time there were developed from the Roman three distinct modern tongues-Italian, French, and Spanish. In England the Germanic dialect (Anglo-Saxon) remained pure for several centuries, till the French-speaking Normans subjected it to Romanic influence. Thus, with the exception of the Sclavonic, the Germanic are the only European nations whose languages are unaffected by foreign elements. These lingual developments are represented in the following diagram :

III. Feudalism.-When nations became fixed, and wandering life had ceased, social organization was necessary. Here, again, the Germanic element prevailed, and feudalism, a Teutonic institution, was the first system to take

possession of European society. To secure their new possessions and to reward their followers the barbarian chiefs allotted lands to their military leaders, who in turn dealt them out in smaller shares to those beneath them in rank. The condition annexed to these holdings was, that the receiver should do faithful service, when called upon, to him by whom they were given; while, on the other hand, the lords were pledged to protect the possessions thus bestowed. Hence, with these obligations of service and protection were inculcated the refining ideas of duty and affection. From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries this social system was universally adopted, and in it modern civilization had its birth. Wherever barbarism ceased feudalism was established. Though pernicious in many respects, it exercised a powerful and favorable influence over the intellectual growth of the nations. The earliest monuments of modern literature are traced back to feudal times.

IV. Supremacy of the Church.-From the fifth to the sixteenth century the Church exercised a mighty power over civilization. While secular disorganization everywhere prevailed, the Church was an organized society, thus presenting to the world an example of social order and regularity; while secular ignorance was universal, the Church preserved a faint but glimmering ray of learning: though opposed to secular learning and the study of the classics, the Church became the means of preserving and multiplying classical manuscripts. In short, the Church was the bridge across the Dark Ages, between ancient and modern civilization, between ancient and modern literature. Her impress on early European literature is manifest, and in its study the power exerted by religion over the human mind in those remote times must be taken into consideration.

V. Crusades.-The Crusades-wars undertaken for the recovery of Palestine from the Infidels were a result of the supremacy of papal power and of the potent influence of religion. With Europe the Crusades were the first

European event; with nations the first national event. When these extraordinary expeditions began there were distinct nations; but at their close these nations felt and thought of themselves as distinct nations. In a word, national feeling became a common sentiment among men. By these international movements, and the acquaintance which they afforded with new countries, peoples, languages, and customs, the European mind was enlightened; fanaticism and superstition were greatly lessened; thought was awakened; and from the time of the Crusades a great intellectual revival began all over Europe. The following table gives the order of the Crusades, with the names of their principal leaders:

I.

ANGLO-SAXON AGE.

A.D. 450-1350.

ANGLO-SAXON POETRY OF WAR AND RELIGION.

CULMINATION OF ANGLO-SAXON PROSE UNDER KING

ALFRED.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.