From The Quarterly Review. in their rivalries, fought for the idea dimly divined by Dante, suffered for by Ugo Foscolo, and almost despaired of by Manzoni and Massimo d'Azeglio. No doubt LITTLE more than ten years have elapsed since the edifice of Italian unity, at once a piecemeal and a rapid perform-it was an Italian hand that flung the nefaance, was crowned by the meeting of the rious bombs which reminded Napoleon Italian Parliament in its present domicile III. of his youthful pledges to the Caron Monte Citorio. Even while yet linger- bonari. But the personal fears of the ing at Turin, the representatives of those French emperor would not have sufficed provinces of the peninsula that recognized to make him salute Baron Hübner on the sceptre of Victor Emmanuel had by a New Year's Day, 1859, with such unfesunanimous vote styled themselves the tive brusqueness, had there not been felt Parliament of Italy; but the title scarcely in the imperial councils a necessity for corresponded with the fact while Venetia demonstrating afresh that the ruler of still cowered under the Hapsburg eagle, France was the nephew of his uncle. and pontifical territory still intervened Without the blood shed at Solferino and between Tuscany on the one side and the Magenta, Italy might still have been a two Sicilies on the other. The sharp bundle of heterogeneous and antagonistic sword of Sadowa remedied the blundering duchies. The preliminaries of Villafran. stroke of Custozza; and the autumn of ca, and the chilling pause that followed 1866 saw the Italian legislature enlarged their ratification at Zurich, seemed a poor in numbers and improved in authority by and inadequate result for so much slaughdeputies from Venetia. Its transfer from ter, and singularly out of proportion with Turin to Florence, however, scarcely the high-sounding, if ambiguous mani. added to its lustre; for in spite of the festo, announcing that Italy should be vast sums lavished upon the fair city on free from the Alps to the Adriatic. Then the Arno in the hope of rendering it in it was that whatever the Italians have fact as well as in name the capital of done for themselves, they did, and did Italy, the Italians themselves persisted in with consummate dexterity. By a series regarding it as merely an étape or halting- of rapid and imposing plébiscites, they place, from which, in the ripeness of time, tore the treaty of Zurich to tatters; and the last stage of Italian unity was to start, Tuscany, Emilia, and the Marches, folfinishing its journey at Rome. lowing the fortunes of Lombardy, clustered round the cross of Savoy. The audacity of Garibaldi and the ineptitude of the Neapolitan Bourbons rendered the emancipation of the two Sicilies a facile if in some respects a brilliant exploit; and when Cavour closed his eyes in death, only Venetia and a remnant of the temporal dominion of the Papacy remained to be admitted to the Italian family. There never was such another run of luck in the history of the world, as attended the aspirations of the Italian people from the spring of 1859 to the autumn of 1871. Let due allowance be made for Italian patriotism, Italian tact, and Italian courage; for the statesmanship of Cavour, for the conspiring intellect of Mazzini, the untiring tentatives of Garibaldi, and the loyal steadfastness of Victor Emmanuel. . Still, their combined efforts to liberate Italy from Bardonecchia to Manfredonia would have been vain, had not the stars in their courses, and European potentates • 1. Annuario Statistico Italiano. Anno 1881. Roma. (Issued by the Ministry of Agriculture, In dustry, and Commerce.) 2. Reports from Her Majesty's Consuls. Presented to both Houses of Parliament. 3. La Voce d'un Contadino. Verona. 4. Atti della Giunta per ia Inchiesta Agraria sulle condizioni della classe agricola. Roma. Perhaps it was the very precipitation with which the patriotic idea of the Italians was put into execution, that caused its fulfilment to be attended with military disasters, not to say with military disgrace. It is an Italian who confesses that, since the battle of Legnano in the twelfth century, whenever the Italians have fought single-handed, and in the * Mr. Gallenga, in his work, called "Italy Revisited, published in 1875. guise of a nation, from Cortenova to Cus- | summoned home; and, almost without a tozza, their military annals register noth- blow, the cross of Savoy and the Italian ing but defeats. When fighting on land tricolor were planted upon the Capitol. against the Turks, Venice employed Sla-Ci siamo, e ci resteremo,' 99 Here we vonians, and Florence entrusted her mil- are, and here we shall remain," said Vic itary fortunes to foreign mercenaries. tor Emmanuel in his laconic fashion; and The Piedmontese army, as every one who his words have proved no idle boast. fought side by side with it in the Crimea "Roma capitale was for years chalked has testified, was as valorous as it was up on every wall and hoarding in the peefficient; and the battle of Tchernaia, or, ninsula; and, in spite of the serious mate. as the Italians write it, Cernaia, gives the rial inconveniences Rome presents in the name to one of the new Roman streets character of a metropolis, not a voice has that debouch on the Baths of Diocletian. since been lifted among patriotic Italians But the organizing element in the gallant to contest its claims or to suggest that little army of Piedmont was Savoyard; the capital should be transferred elseand its character was diluted and lost where. when it became necessary to have an Italian army as well as an Italian parliament and an Italian code. The spirit of the people in 1866, when the Rè Galantuomo led his imposing forces to join issue with the Austrian on the field contested by his father seventeen years previously, was all that could be desired. But the second Custozza was as disastrous at the first, and, in a military sense, far more discreditable; and the chagrin with which the news of the defeat of the Italian army by a force numerically inferior was received throughout Italy, was in a few days more than doubled by the tidings of the naval catastrophe of Lissa. Yet the result of this mismanagement in the field and on the sea was the liberation of Venetia; and now the pope alone maintained his ground against the advancing tide of the "Piedmontese." Garibaldi made a memorable but futile effort at Mentana to dethrone the pope-king; and the watchword "Rome or death!" was silenced for the moment by the "miraculous chassepots" of De Failly. But once again fortune conspired to do for the Italians what their restless intrepidity had failed to accomplish. Another nationality had come into existence, and was craving for the fruition of its dreams. French vanity finding itself "asphyxiated" by the aggrandizement of Prussia and the vicinity of the North German Confederation, flung down the challenge that was answered at Sedan. The necessity of defending Paris caused the French garrison in the Papal States to be hurriedly This rapid survey of the events of what may be called the first decade of new Italy brings us to the commencement of the second decade, or the period between the close of 1871 and the present time, whose main features and general progress we now propose to examine. The Ital ians have for ten years enjoyed complete territorial and legislative unity. What have they done with it? Have they turned it to good or to bad account? Has Italy been a useful or a mischievous element in European politics? Is the domestic record of Italy a happy and an honorable one? Is the country increasing in wealth and material prosperity? Do its people exhibit; signs of steady, safe, and satisfactory progress, in education, literature, the fine arts, manners, and morals? These are interesting questions; and we will endeavor to give them a dispassionate answer. It would seem to be part of the dispensation under which we live, that, even to the attainment of the most meritorious and salutary ends, means of questionable character, and methods of doubtful integ rity, should almost invariably contribute. There are perhaps no episodes in history more thoroughly satisfactory in their results to those whom they still continue to affect, than the English Reformation, the French Revolution, and the unification of Italy. Yet the impartial annalist can scarcely record the details of those momentous occurrences, without having fre quently to acknowledge the ambi uous nature of the machinery, and the unscru pulous character of the men, whereby | of Italy of a third of his kingdom from they were promoted. In estimating the the hands of a Condottiere has hitherto agencies by which Italy was delivered rendered it impossible for his son to deal from alien rulers and domestic oppress- with insubordinate or conspiring Redors, we must perforce allow that both the shirts according to the laws of the realm. men and the methods were revolutionary. There can be no doubt that, though SigCavour laughed at truth, and Garibaldi nor Depretis, Signor Cairoli, and their mocked at law. Duplicity and bucca- colleagues may inwardly have sympa. neering were the two main instruments thized with the aspirations of the conspir by which the Italians attained their hon-ators whose motto is "Italia Irredenta," est and legitimate ends. Cynics, and they at the same time deplored the moveperhaps politicians, will console them- ment, seeing that it is calculated to emselves with the dictum, "Qui veut la fin, barrass them abroad, and to weaken them veut les moyens; " and the moralist who at home. Yet no explicit and unambig. elects to preach a homily on the diplo- uous condemnation of the Italia Irredenta matic double-dealing and the daring dis-party has ever proceeded from a responregard of public law, by which Pius IX. sible Italian statesman. He dreads to was reduced to "a palace and a garden," injure himself by doing so; nor can he and Francis II. was sent to swell the afford to seem to denounce a party in the ranks of "les rois en exil," has unques- State, to whose untiring enterprises in tionably an admirable theme, but will the past Italy as she is undoubtedly owes probably secure only a limited audience. so much. Like Faust, Italy has regained Revolutions are not made with rose- her youth, but she must keep her bargain water; and if the aphorism that the end with the revolutionary demon to whom justifies the means be exclusively the she owes her rejuvenescence. tenet of the followers of Loyola, the world at large, the English nation not excluded, is more of a Jesuit than has been generally supposed. But it wraps its theories in more skilful phraseology than the Spanish casuists; and, borrow ing the legal intellect for an accomplice, it shrugs its shoulders, and observes with perfect self-satisfaction, " Fieri non debuit; factum valet." The death of Garibaldi has in some degree liberated the Italian government from the fetters it had forged for itself in profiting by his adventurous spirit. His sons are naturally attempting to inherit his mantle; but it is scarcely to be supposed that, in a democratic society, the most arbitrary of all forms of bequest will be recognized. Fortunately, there is nothing in these young men to make them It is easier, however, as Goethe has formidable. Their abilities are not strikobserved, to raise the devil than to lay ing, and their character is discredited. It him; and the revolutionary agencies, with was to pay their debts that Garibaldi at which Cavour and his successors did not length reluctantly accepted a pension from disdain to co-operate for the achievement the nation. The personal disinterestedof their purpose, have not been willing to ness of Garibaldi has not been bequeathed retire into private life at the bidding of to his children, and it was the popularity those to whom they had become an incon- with which his disinterestedness invested venience and an embarrassment. Ten him that made him a standing menace years of complicity on the part of the alike to the internal tranquillity of Italy, executive with those restless and irregu- and to the stability of her foreign relalar members of society who concealed tions. Now and again, no doubt, the revtheir ulterior designs by calling them-olutionary temper still insists on maniselves Garibaldians, have compelled the festing itself in a flagrant manner, as on government to deal tenderly with men the occasion of the transfer of the rewho, in ordinary times and under ordinary circumstances, would have been committed to a fortress or sent to the galleys; and the acceptance by the late king mains of Pius IX. from St. Peter's to "San Lorenzo fuori le mura," and in the Orsini bombs intended to salute the visit of the emperor of Austria-Hungary to Trieste. But there is a perceptible subsi- extended to the featherheaded agitators dence of the temper of political insubordi- who claim Trieste as well as the Trennation, and perhaps the very indulgence tino, has necessarily caused the power the government displays to political that has not the smallest intention to suroffences is a proof of its consciousness render either, to be upon its guard. that it has no longer to deal with a seri- against its covetous neighbor. On the ous adversary. A little while ago, Signor occasion of his recent visit to Trieste, the Alberto Mario, the editor and proprietor emperor of Austria declared in the most of La Lega, was condemned to a term of significant manner, that the great Adriatic imprisonment for insulting the king and port would never be separated from the the pope. He is still at large, and edit- crown of the Hapsburgs. The intimation ing his violent republican paper. Not un- was in reality addressed to the governnaturally wishing to make arrangements ment and people of Italy. for an editorial substitute during his in- Thus neither special wisdom nor carceration, he paid a visit to the questor, marked success can be attributed to Italand asked when his term of imprisonment ian diplomacy during the last few years. would commence. He could obtain no No doubt something of the failure, and satisfactory reply. Still receiving no in- something of the folly it has exhibited, timation upon the subject, and perhaps must be ascribed to the fact, that it beginning to be anxious for the honors of pleases Italy to pose as a great power, cheap martyrdom, Signor Mario repeated without carrying guns of a calibre comhis visit and his question. "Abbia pa-mensurate with such a pretension. The zienza," said the questor; "do be patient. We will send for you when we want you." It would be well if these irregularities in the domestic policy of Italy had not occasionally exhibited themselves in the direction of her foreign policy; for they have exposed the crown to a series of rebuffs from foreign courts, hardly distinguishable from positive slights. If there has been anything steadfast in Italian diplomacy during the last ten years, it has been the zealous attempt made to obtain for Italy admission to the good graces of Germany and Austria. Yet though the king of Italy has paid a ceremonial visit alike to Berlin and to Vienna, neither the emperor of Germany nor Francis Joseph II. has found his way to Rome. It will, perhaps, be said, that consideration for the susceptibilities of the Papacy has prevented the performance of this obvious obligation of courtesy on the part of the emperor of Austria. But no such ex-ditions of diplomacy. Was Italy alone to cuse can be pleaded in the case of the powerful monarch who is still at spiritual war with the Vatican; and it is quite certain that both of these monarchs would give little heed to the feelings of Leo XIII. if they were really anxious to convince Italy of their friendship, and to demonstrate the value they set upon hers. But the truth is, Italy is not trusted. Her foreign policy has been so nakedly and clumsily self-seeking, has been so completely a pourboire policy, that foreign Cabinets not unnaturally feel Italy can be bought over to their side at the last moment, if only the bribe offered be substantial enough. Moreover, the toleration which the Italian government has fable of the frog and the bull, or that of the brass and the earthenware pot that went to the well together, would be emblematic of the position of Italy in the European concert. At the Congress of Berlin, Italy was a fifth wheel to the coach; if indeed we should not rather say that she was the fly on the wheel. Her representative at the Congress, Count Corti, strongly advised his superiors at home to be both modest and moderate, as befitted the attitude of a State having to deal ostensibly on equal terms with powers to which she is in reality unequal. But the acquisition of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria, of Cyprus by England, and of the implied right to establish a protectorate in Tunis by France, were followed by an explosion of wrath and disappointment of public opinion in Italy, and by a fidgetiness in her Foreign Office singularly at variance with the tra have nothing? It certainly was irritating to the Italians to feel that their policy had been, as we have said, essentially and before all things, a pourboire policy, and that they were to be the only members of the party left thirsting. Nor did this rude disappointment serve to make them wiser and more cautious. When France at length proceeded to exercise the powers indirectly conferred upon it at Berlin of reducing the bey of Tunis to a condition of dependency, the Italians were simple enough, because Mr. Gladstone and Earl Granville indulged in some fine moral sentiments, to imagine that England would second Italy in protesting against, and even in preventing, the bombardment of Sfax and the occupation of Tunis. of a total State expenditure of 52,159,000%. Any one who conferred with Italian states- It has been as high as 11,000,000l., even men at that period must have come to the when the revenue was considerably conclusion that the love entertained by smaller than it is now. The reduction Italy for England was boundless, and her has been obtained by keeping fewer men confidence in our policy implicit and un- with the colors. At present these numreserved. It has since been our misfor- ber only about 170,000; but 977,629 men tune to have forfeited this profound affec- have been passed through the ranks, and tion. Not only did the fine sentiments of to these have to be added, in case of need, our prime minister concerning the wick- 564,300 of the territorial militia; making a edness of invading Tunis halt at the grand total of 1,544,665 men available as strictly academical stage, but England, food for powder. Any one who has seen under his direction, has invaded Egypt, the king of Italy ride up the Via Nazioand has shown itself as little careful of nale on his birthday, surrounded by a Italian susceptibilities on the Nile as splendid staff, and followed by some fifFrance had been of Italian susceptibili- teen thousand troops of all branches of ties on the African seaboard. Accord the service, or has been present at one of ingly, the vials of Italian wrath were di- the reviews held periodically in the meadverted from France to ourselves; and ows that lie between the Tiber and Monte until Sir Garnet Wolseley by the victory Mario, can hardly fail to have been struck of Tel-el-Kebir rendered persistence in with the excellent physique and the solsuch a course injudicious as well as ridic- dierly bearing of the rank and file. But ulous, England was covered with abuse these constitute the garrison of Rome, and assailed with detraction from one end and are not a fair sample of the Italian of the Italian peninsula to the other. army, any more than the garrison of Paris Selfishness is doubtless the highest law in the days of the Second Empire accuof nations; but it should be an enlight-rately exemplified the forces with which ened selfishness. Self-interest should be Napoleon III. rushed to his destruction pursued with dignity, and maintained with decency. The foreign policy of Italy has been at one and the same time cynical and naïf; unblushingly selfish, and unprecedentedly stupid. We confess we gave the Italians credit for better taste and better judgment. at Sedan. Though the minimum standard for recruits is only five feet one inch, the average height of the Italian army is five feet five inches. But while native thews are not wanting, the necessity of economizing in every branch of the service causes parsimony in the feeding of Italy's fighting stuff to be exercised in a manner that has not escaped challenge. Many of the soldiers have a rickety and half-starved appearance; and persons who ought to know assure us that, though drill is twice as severe as it used to be, diet is precisely what it was before so much harder work was imposed on the raw recruit. The Italian soldier has allotted to him only half as much meat as is served out to the English soldier, and his rations are smaller even than those allowed in the French army. He has to find his own wine; and there is reason to believe that his bread is soaked oftener in hot water than in broth, polenta, or cooked vegetables. At the manoeuvres held at Perugia in the course of this autumn, it was observed that numbers of the soldiers fell out of the ranks from the effects of sunstroke, though the summer in Italy during the present year has been one of unusual mildness. Upon one point the Italian people deserve all the eulogies that could be passed upon them. We have said it is their ambition that Italy should rank among the six great European powers; and how ever much Italy may in substance fall below her nominal political status, it cannot be denied that material sacrifices of an unparalleled kind have been made by her citizens, and are still being made by them, in order that their aspiration may be attained. There has been a reduction in the expenditure of the ministries of war and marine; but, in so far as the reduction has been real, it does not represent any diminution of the fighting capacity of Italy, or any flagging in the popular wish that the Italian army and the Italian navy should be strong and efficient. A chronic struggle is carried on between the minister of finance and the minister of war, and has led to more than one resignation. Since 1879, the military and naval expenditure has been more or less Whilst the new Italian kingdom thus instationary; and for that year, the last for dulges in "bloated armaments" on land, which figures have as yet been definitely which it is impossible should be made ascertained, it amounted to 9,262,000/., out | thoroughly efficient for the amount that |