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others; " he was to instruct "all your people rather too much than anything too little, that they may procure the friendship of the people of those parts by courtesies than move them to any offence or misliking," and he was at once to repair to the mines in which he wrought last year, and there place his men to work and collect the ore. It was expected that five thousand tons weight of ore would be brought back, and that many members of the expedition would be absent some eighteen months. The popularity which Frobisher now enjoyed was attendant with the consequences which a sudden success so often inspires; for we are told that he "grew into such a monstrous mind, that a whole kingdom could not contain it, but already, by discovery of a new world, he was become another Columbus." Eleven ships were fitted out for this expedition; they sailed from Harwich May 31, 1578, the queen herself, a large adventurer, watching their departure, and, it is said, wishing them success.

tain ore brought out of the north-west parts | by Martin Frobisher." And now conflicting opinions arose as to the value of the voyage. Lok, who was heavily interested in the venture "having been," as he admits, "at very great charges for two years since Forbisher has been in London, who ate the most of his meat at my table freely and gladly' informs Walsingham that the ore is not yet brought to perfection, but that it is very rich, and will yield forty pounds a ton clear of charges: "this is assuredly true, which may suffice to embrace the enterprise." The officials at the mint were, however, not so sanguine. One Jonas Schutz, a German, "engaged that two tons should yield, in fine gold, twenty ounces; a Dr. Burcott certifies that "he has proved it to the uttermost, and finds not such great riches as is here spoken and reported of; "whilst a third, Geoffrey le Brumen, has the frankness to write to Walsingham that "he has tried all the minerals given to him, and finds the greater part to be only marquisette, and The absence of the little fleet was no gold or silver, or next to none." The shorter than had been calculated upon; Privy Council, however, incited by the for, early in the autumn of the same year credulity of the shareholders, declined to that had witneesed its departure, it was pay heed to any adverse opinions. The descried off the western coast, and Frovoyage, it was given out, had been propi- bisher arrived at Cornwall September 25, tious; tons of ore had been brought home, 1578. He at once repaired to the court at and alchemy had discovered that the Richmond, and from thence to London. precious metal was within; all doubt had "Whereupon was no small joy conceived been removed as to the existence of mines on all parties for the safety of the men, rich with gold in those northern regions. though many died of sickness, but espe So eager was the nation to jump to con- cially for the treasure he brought, the clusions and build up a faith upon the ships being laden with rich gold ore, slenderest of foundations, that, before the worth, he said, sixty pounds and eighty truth could be fully ascertained as to the pounds a ton." The cargo was discharged value or worthlessness of the ore, a third at Dartford, and workmen were appointed expedition was hastily fitted out, and the" to see good proofs made of the ore from subscription list at once covered. By both voyages.' But now the bubble burst. command of Queen Elizabeth, Walsing. Two assays were made, and in two hunham wrote to the lord treasurer and lord dredweight of "Frobisher's ore" two chamberlain that her Majesty, "under-minute particles of silver, not so big as a standing that the richness of that earth is pin's head, were found, and, as an evilike to fall out to a good reckoning, is dence of the worthlessness of the ore, well pleased that a third voyage be taken they remain to this day fastened by in hand," and that "our loving friend sealing-wax to the report. The shareMartin Frobisher" be appointed captain-holders were loud in their expressions of general of the expedition. Instructions rage and disappointment, and more than drawn up by Lord Burghley were placed one adventurer, who had placed all his in the hands of the popular navigator. Frobisher was ordered to make "for the land now called by her Majesty Meta Incognita, to the north-west parts, and Cathay;" he was not to receive "under his charge any disorderly or mutinous person; he was not to lose any of the ship's company, any such offender to be punished" sharply, to the example of

hopes in "Frobisher's ore," to save himself from ruin, became lodged within the cells of the Fleet. Among these latter was now to be confined the person of Michael Lok. Of all those who had supported Frobisher in his voyages and had covered the subscription list with large sums, Lok was among the most confident and speculative. He had himself been

In

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much engaged in maritime explorations, | drawing up an account of the three voyhe was a personal friend of Frobisher, ages of Frobisher, which, due allowance whom he had accompanied in his voyages, being made for the animus of the writer, and it was mainly through his activity and cannot but be of the greatest service, from perseverance that the different expedi- the numerous novel facts they contain, to tions had been fitted out. To him Fro- all chroniclers of Arctic navigation. bisher was under the deepest obligations. addition to this narrative, which comprises "I opened all my private studies and no less than fifteen papers, Lok has left twenty years' labor to him," writes Lok behind him a very full record of "The mournfully, "and showed him all my Doings of Captain Frobisher amongst books, charts, maps, and instruments. I the Company's Business," of which two daily instructed him, making my home his copies are extant, one in the Public Rechome, my purse his purse at his need, and ord Office, and the other in the British my credit his credit to my power, when Museum. he was utterly destitute both of money, In spite of past failure, various expedicredit, and friends." Of the twenty thou- tions, as these volumes of Mr. Sainsbury sand pounds subscribed by the adven- amply prove, were fitted out for the disturers to the three voyages, Lok had put covery of the North-West Passage. A down his name for five thousand, and the fourth voyage under Frobisher was prounfortunate end of the expeditions which jected, but, owing to certain restrictions he had always so sanguinely upheld, now which were contained in his instructions, signified ruin. As is so often the case the great navigator threw up his appointwhere hopes have been cruelly disap-ment, and the expedition sailed under the pointed by those in whom we trust, an command of one Edward Fenton. estrangement between the two friends was, however, to meet with no better took place, to be followed by recrimina- success than its predecessors, and those tion on both sides and the bitterest ani- interested in the question will find much mosity. Frobisher railed at his former new matter in the letter of its commander benefactor, and called him "a false ac- (June 29, 1583) to Burghley, announcing countant," "a cozener," "a bankrupt the failure of the voyage. A few years knave;" he spread shameful reports about him in the city, and raged against him "lyke a made best," and, to add a still more grievous insult to the injuries he had already inflicted, swore that Lok, who had spent his substance in the shares, was no venturer at all in the voyages." In retaliation, Lok declared that Frobisher had hoodwinked the public as to the ore for his own evil purposes, that he victualled his ships so badly that many of his crew died, that he nearly caused all the ships to founder "through his obstinate ignorance," that he was "full of lying talk and so impudent of tongue as his best friends are most slandered," and that if his doings in the three voyages were enquired into, he would be found "the most unprofitable servant of all that have served the queen." Still in this passage of arms the victory was not with Lok. No fault was found with the conduct of Frobisher; he had not rendered himself liable as a shareholder, and, though the cause of ruin to many, he was neither ruined nor disgraced. Lok was less fortunate. His petition for relief was not entertained; he was looked upon as responsible for the debts of the "company of the north-west voyage," and the last we hear of him is as a petitioner from the Fleet. Here he busied himself with

later, at the instigation and expense of the East India Company, Captain Waymouth set out with the "Discovery," and the " Godspeed," "to sail towards the coast of Greenland and pass on into those seas by the north-west towards Cathay or China, without giving over, proceeding on his course so long as he finds any possibility to make a passage through those seas, and not to return for any let or impediment whatever until one year has been bestowed in attempting the passage." His attempt, though unsuccessful, was not a complete failure; for writers on Arctic voyages, however much they differ as to the importance of his discoveries, agree in this, that "he lighted Hudson into his strait." Other expeditions were proposed by the East India Company, and we read, on one occasion, of the interest taken by the emperor of Japan in the discovery of the passage; yet no practical good seems to have been the result of all this agitation. The ships returned home as the other ships had returned home, or the negotiations for a voyage fell through, and the project was as hastily abandoned as it had been entertained. Of the explorations of Hudson, Button, Bylot, and Baffin, the State papers add comparatively little to what is already known. Nor, curiously enough,

where even unimportant events are related | upon the royal treasury, readily granted in full, is any mention made of the voyages the desired permission, and accordingly, of John Davis. "It is true," says Mr. in 1591, three ships, under the command Sainsbury, "that his name occurs more of Captain Raymond, sailed for the East. than once, and that each mention of it An account of this voyage is printed in has a peculiar interest; but in reference Hakluyt; the ships were separated from to his voyages for discovery of the North- each other by a severe storm, Raymond West Passage, the papers are wholly was wrecked and never heard of again, silent, and I am not aware of any partic- and the only vessel, after "many griev ulars having been published beyond those ous misfortunes," that accomplished the furnished by Hakluyt." voyage was the "Rear-Admiral," comWe now turn to a matter of deeper and manded by Master James Lancaster. It closer interest. The rise and develop- has been generally supposed that this was ment of the East India Company are the first English expedition despatched among the most romantic passages of to the East Indies, but both in the volhistory. That a small body of English umes of Purchas and of Hakluyt accounts merchants should have settled themselves of two previous voyages will be found, in a strange and distant land, should have one in 1579 by Stevens, and the other in overcome all opposition, and by their 1583 by Fitch, "wherein the strange rites, courage and firmness should have gradu- manners, and customs of those people, ally extended their operations until they and the exceeding rich trade and comhad compelled the fiercest princes to do modities of those countries, are faithfully them homage, are events so full of inci- set down and diligently described." Other dent and plot that they never fail to excite detached expeditions followed in the wake our interest even when our sympathies of that of Raymond, and the reports that are repelled. Thrice told as has been were brought home of the treasures obthe story, the pages of Mr. Sainsbury yet tained by the Portuguese and the Dutch shed a new light upon the subject, and in those regions led certain English merilluminate the narrative with details not chants, in 1599, to form themselves into a visible in the printed works of the chron- company with the special object of trading iclers and historians of our Indian empire. with the East Indies. A sum of over The defeat of the Spanish Armada had thirty thousand pounds was subscribed not only established the maritime suprem- for; a petition was presented to the Counacy of England, but had aroused the cil praying for incorporation as a company, cupidity of our trading classes to take "for that the trade of the Indies, being so part in the enterprises which had resulted far remote from hence, cannot be traded in the realization of such wealth to the but in a joint and united stock." Both Iberian peninsula. Within a few months the queen and her Council cordially apof the destruction of the proud fleet proved of the enterprise, and no oppowhich was to have made the Spaniard the sition was raised in any quarter. The master of our shores, a body of English" Charter of Incorporation of the East merchants petitioned the Virgin Queen India Company, by the name of the Govfor permission to send ships to India. In ernor and Company of Merchants of Lontheir memorial they alluded to the pros- don trading into the East Indies," was perity which had attended upon the estab-granted December 31, 1600. It was to lishment of the Spanish and Portuguese remain in force fifteen years; George, settlements, and drew attention to the Earl of Cumberland, and two hundred and many ports in the countries bordering on fifteen knights, aldermen, and merchants the India and China seas, which might were the original members of the Combe visited with advantage by English pany; Lancaster was appointed admiral ships, "where sales might be made of of the fleet, with John Davis, the northEnglish cloths and other staple and man- west navigator, as second in command. factured articles, and the produce of those In order that the expedition should be countries purchased; such a trade would stamped with the impress of the royal by degrees add to the shipping, seamen, approval, Queen Elizabeth had herself and naval force of the kingdom, in the issued a circular letter to "the kings of same manner as it has increased the Por- Sumatra and other places in the East tuguese fleets." Elizabeth, always will- Indies," desiring them to encourage her ing to lend the weight of her authority to subjects in their attempt to open up a the furtherance of any scheme calculated commerce between the two countries, to add to the power of England, provided whereby her amity and friendship would it did not lead to severe encroachments | be maintained and greater benefits be de

rived by the Indies from intercourse with England than from intercourse either with Spain or Portugal. The wishes of her Majesty were obeyed. The voyage was eminently successful. Factories were settled at Acheen and Bantam by Lancaster. The king of Sumatra gave permission to English merchants, under the most favorable terms, to trade within his territories, whilst, in reply to the letter of the queen, he handed Lancaster a despatch full of the warmest feelings of friendship towards England and her sovereign, accompanied by "a ring beautified with a ruby, two vestures woven and embroidered with gold, and placed within a purple box of china," which he requested should be presented to Elizabeth. The customs on the goods brought home from this first voyage amounted, it is said, to nearly one thousand pounds. So good a beginning was not permitted to come to nought through apathy or negligence. Voyage succeeded voyage, and in spite of the hostility of the Spaniards and the Portuguese, and of the treacherous friendship of the Dutch, England, at the end of a few years, had succeeded in firmly establishing a lucrative and increasing trade in the East Indies.

To almost every place [writes Mr. Sainsbury]

where there was the least likelihood of obtain

ing a communication with the natives, English

Company "may better know the worth of their adventures." We read of adventures of 60%. being knocked down at 130%, and of those of 100l. realizing nearly 2001. It is not, therefore, surprising that shares in the Company were eagerly sought after, and that as much intrigue and competi tion were required to obtain the post of director as were necessary for high office at court.

66

At the outset of their proceedings the Company were fortunate in securing the support and protection of the Great Mogul. This terrible personage, whom both rumor and fable had succeeded in raising to the position of the one potentate of the East, whose frown was death, but whose friendship was omnipotent, had been appeased by courteous letters from James, and, what had appealed more closely to his Oriental mind, by numerous presents from the English merchants. The papers calendared by Mr. Sainsbury afford us some interesting particulars in connection with the life and character of this powerful prince. We are told that "he takes himself to be the greatest monarch in the world," is extremely proud and covetous," a drunkard, "and so given to vice that the chief captains care not for him, and willingly would never come near him." Music, it appears, "had a great charm for him;" not esteemed," but with the cornet and playing upon the virginals, however, was the harp he was so "exceedingly delighted" that he offered to make any of his subjects who could learn these instruments "a great man." His rapacity for presents was unbounded. Something or other, though not worth two shillings, must be presented every eight days," writes the chief factor at Ajmere. "Nothing is to be expected," says another, "from the king without continual gifts.' Like all savages, he was delighted with strange things, no matter how intrinsically valueShortly after the accession of James the less they might prove. Rich gloves, emcharter of the Company was renewed, but broidered caps, purses, looking-glasses, with most important additions; instead drinking-cups, pictures, knives, striking of their privileges being limited to fifteen clocks, colored beaver hats, or silk stockyears "the whole, entire, and only trade ings for his women, were recommended and traffic to the East Indies" were by the factors abroad to the officers of the granted to the Company forever. The Company as presents to be brought out. result of this monopoly was the speedy "Indeed," writes one, "if you have a jack establishment of factories at Surat, Agra, to roast meat on, I think he would like it, and Masulipatam; at the chief ports of or any toy of new invention." The imporJava, Sumatra, and Borneo; and at many tance which the Great Mogul attached to of the towns in the kingdoms of Malacca, gifts was not overlooked by the authorities Camboja, Pegu, Siam, and Cochin-China. at home. One Edwardes was sent over as Shares in the voyages were often "sold"lieger," with "great presents." Among by the candle," and commanded exorbi- his stock in trade, which was to propitiate tant prices, the object being that the the barbarous monarch, were suits of

vessels resorted, in most instances with success; and where this was not so, the cause was rather attributable to the conduct of the Dutch than to the Company's neglect of the necessary precautions, the English being almost invariably received with courtesy, and even kindness, wherever they went. The Company never lost sight of the danger of attack from Spaniards and Portuguese. Care was always taken, before trading or settling in a new country, to ascertain the feeling of the natives, and in was granted for

"license most cases leave or the English to do as they liked.

armor, swords, mastiffs, greyhounds, little | the country, under the ardent generalship dogs, pictures of King James and his of Xavier, the governor, "this malicious queen, and a coach and horse, together wretch" allowed himself to become a with "a coachman who had been in the service of the Bishop of Lichfield, to drive the coach." The portraits of the king and queen of England struck the Great Mogul with admiration. "He esteemed it so well for the workmanship," writes Edwardes, "that the day after he sent for all his painters in public to see the same, who did admire it, and confessed that none of them could anything near imitate the same, which makes him prize it above all the rest, and esteem it for a jewel." He was almost as much delighted with one of the English mastiffs that had been brought out. With the instinct of the savage, he at once wished to witness the prowess of the animal in an unequal battle. The mastiff was first pitted against a tiger and then with a bear, both of which it killed, "whereby the king was exceed ingly pleased." Pictures, mastiffs, Irish greyhounds, and well-fed water spaniels, seem to have been the gifts most approved of by his Majesty. But, though the Great Mogul was a glutton touching the things he expected to be given him, we are informed that he was no mean purchaser of the Company's goods. "Pearls, rubies, and emeralds will be bought by the king in infinite quantities," writes a factor from Agra, "as also rich velvets, cloth of gold, rich tapestry, satins, damasks," etc.; and he significantly adds, "The king is the best paymaster in the country."

complete tool in the hands of the Portuguese. In all disputes between the two nations he at once decided in favor of the Lisbon adventurers. He seized the goods of the English factors, and did what he pleased with them. To prevent all opposition he compelled the English to yield up to him their arms of defence. He used his authority to delay the unlading of English goods, and hampered the merchants on all sides in their purchase of commodities. "Numerous are the injuries he inflicts upon us," writes one of the factors, "discovering the secret rancor of his poisoned stomach and the hidden malice which he beareth unto our nation." So baneful was the conduct of Mocrob Khan to the establishment of English commerce in "the Oriental Indies," that the authorities at home gave orders for a fleet to sail for the redress of the Company's complaints, and despatched Sir Thomas Roe, “he being a gentleman of pregnant understanding, well-spoken, learned, industrious, of a comely personage, and one of whom there are great hopes that he may work much good for the Company," as special envoy to the governor of Surat. At this juncture of affairs, and fortunately for the interests of our merchants in the East, a quarrel broke out between the Great Mogul and the Portuguese, who had made themselves odious by capturing "a great ship, of eleven hundred or twelve hundred tons, in Swally The authority of the Great Mogul was road, worth from one hundred to one soon to be of service to English interests. hundred and thirty thousand pounds," in At none of the settlements had the Com- which the mother of the Great Mogul pany's servants been more subject to was a considerable adventurer. The inopposition and annoyance than at Surat. dignation of the son was aroused, and he At this port the influence of the Portu- fiercely resolved to avenge the insult that guese was dominant, and as Portugal, at had been passed upon himself and the the very outset of the Company's pro- losses his parent had sustained. Uniting ceedings, had warmly objected to the his forces with the troops of the king of establishment of English factories within Deccan, he fell upon the Portuguese at the dominions to which she was trading, Surat, drove them out of the city, and laid she exercised her power to crush the siege to the fort that they had raised beascendency of her rivals. The governor tween that place and Goa. In vain the of Surat, Mocrob Khan, "whose disposi- Portuguese offered amends and sued for tion savored more of child than man," peace. The Great Mogul declined to pursued a policy very disadvantageous to the English. Though he feared the enmity of the Portuguese, he mistrusted the friendship of the Company, and argued, with characteristic indecision, that if he "broke" with the former he should be sure of the friendship of neither. Influenced by the suggestions of the Jesuits, who were rapidly becoming a power in

listen, "forewarning all men any more to solicit their cause," and sternly vowing that "he would not leave the Portugals until he had expelled them their countries." Orders were given to arrest all Portuguese and to seize their goods; the doors of the Portuguese churches were sealed up, the exercise of the Roman Catholic religion forbidden, and Xavier,