side, close to the Pool of Bethesda, is found Stephen's Gate, which among the native Mohammedans bears the name of Bab esSebat (Gate of the Tribes), but is by the Christians called Bab Sitti Merjam (Gate of my Lady Mary). Above, on the outside, are the figures of four lions cut in stone, a proof that it is not an original work of the Moslems. Lastly, on the south, the Gate of Zion leads out of the city to the southern part of Zion's hill,' near the Mussulman sepulchre of David, on which account it is by the natives called Bab en-Nebi Daud (Gate of the Prophet David).

Besides these four open gates, there are four portals which are now walled up:-I. On the north side, between the Gate of Damascus and the north-east corner of the city, is Herod's Gate, which is merely a small portal in a tower II. In the eastern side of the mosque wall is the Golden Gate, Porta Aurea, probably of Roman origin. The Frank name, which can be traced only to the historians of the crusades, is probably derived from some assumed connection with one of the ancient gates of the temple, which was ornamented with gold (Joseph. Jew. War., v. 5, 3). It was closed in the time of the crusades; but every year, on Palm Sunday, it was broken open in order to celebrate the triumphal entry of Jesus into the temple, held to have here taken place. It is still walled up, because, according to the Franks, the Mohammedans believe that a king, passing through it, will take possession of the city and become master of the entire earth. In the southern wall are two closed gates; one, III., on the southern wall of the haram or mosque, near the corner where it joins with the city wall. It is found in a low quadrangular tower, through which formerly a way led into the city. It was first mentioned by recent travellers. IV. Farther west, near the bed of the Tyropoon, is the Dung Gate of the Franks, which the natives term Bab el-Mugharibeh (Gate of the Western Africans). According to Schubert, it is only in recent times, since the insurrection of 1834, that this and Herod's Gate have been built up, while the other two have long been closed.

The chief streets run at right angles to each other. As the whole ground north of Zion declines equally towards the east, while every street running from south to north is level, every street passing from west to east is a steep declivity. Generally, the streets are narrow and badly paved, often merely laid irregularly with broad stones, but their steepness conduces to their being clean, so that they do not present the filth visible in most Oriental towns. The houses are better built than are those of Alexandria or Smyrna; they are of hewn stone, and have flat roofs. On the roof rises a small dome, a peculi

This makes for the whole circumference a distance of 2 English miles, less 74 yards, or very nearly 24 geographical miles.

On the sources whence Jerusalem was supplied with water, see the articles BETHESDA and CISTERN.

Williams (Holy City') gives the following summary of his opinions as to the sources of the supplies of water enjoyed by the inhabitants: The upper spring of Gihon once had its issue on the north side of the city, not far from the tombs of the kings. Its water was originally received into a pool called the Serpents' Pool, out of which it flowed, probably down the valley of Jehoshaphat. In order to divert it from the uses of the enemy, and make it available to his own people in case of siege, Hezekiah stopped the upper fountain, and brought the water of the upper pool by an aqueduct down the valley which bisected the city, as far as the temple, where it supplied the reservoirs prepared by himself or former kings, and then flowed off by an old channel to the Fountain of the Virgin, and was continued through a new bore to the Pool of Siloam, otherwise called 'the Lower Pool' and the King's Pool,' being, in fact,

the veritable Pool of Hezekiah.' CEDRON,

POOL OF SILOAM.

On the east of Jerusalem, separated from it by the Cedron, or Kidron, is the Mount of Olives, the most considerable of the neighbouring hills. Olivet is divided into three elevations, of which the southern bears the name of the Hill of Offence.' See 1 Kings xi. 7, 8. South of Mount Zion stands the 'Hill of Evil Counsel.' It is beyond the valley of Hinnom, from which it rises abruptly with several ranges of rocks, in which are many excavated sepulchres. Its highest point is to the west, which is about the same elevation as Zion. It has on it ruins of a Mohammedan wely and village. These ruins are shown by the monks as the palace of Caiaphas, in which the Jews took counsel (hence the name) to put Christ to death (Matt. xxvi. 3, 4. John xi. 47-53).

In a depression on the eastern side of Olivet lies Bethany, about an hour from the city, whence it is approached, in an E. S. E. direction, by a path over the northern declivity of the Hill of Offence.

Among the objects around Jerusalem the tombs deserve notice (see BURIAL). They are numerous and found on all sides. Those which are in the valleys follow one type. A door in the face of the rock, generally small and without ornament, conducts to one small chamber or more hollowed out of the rock, and for the most part of the same height as the door. Very rarely are these apartments lower than the doors. The walls are simply hewn out of the rock, and there are often niches for corpses.

No graves are found on the north side of

Not far to the north-east of the Damascus Gate is the so-called Grotto of Jeremiah, in which the prophet is said to have written his Lamentations, beneath a round, insulated hill, whose southern side seems to have been hewn away. Here is an entrance into a hall which has a length and breadth of 70, and a height of 40 feet. Before it is a small unwalled garden. On the top of the hill is a Mohammedan burying-place. The grotto is inhabited by a Mussulman pilgrim. Before the entrance grows in abundance the thorn lycium ruthenicum, of which, as some hold, our Lord's crown of thorns was made.

If you pass through St. Stephen's Gate out of the city, you find just opposite you, on the other side of the Cedron, the tomb of Mary, consisting of a chapel over a deep and wide grotto in the rock, where the Virgin and her parents are said to lie. Yon descend to the chapel by forty-eight broad steps. About one-third of the way down you see, on the right hand, the graves of Joachim and Anna, the parents of Mary, and immediately opposite, on the left side, the grave of Joseph. At the bottom of the grotto there is, on the right, a small apartment or chapel, with two doors, within which stands an altar erected above the resting-place of the mother of Jesus. Around it several Christian sects have erected small oratories.

Of the first founding of Jerusalem we have no certain information in the Bible. It is doubtful whether the Salem mentioned in the history of Abraham is the same as Jerusalem of later days (Genesis xiv. 18). The name itself occurs for the first time in Josh. x. 1, where Adoni-Zedek is mentioned as its king (Josh. xii. 10). Jebus is given in Joshua as its more ancient name (xv. 8, 63; xviii. 28). In the division of the land by Joshua, Jebus was assigned to the Benjamites, and the boundary-line between Benjamin and Judah ran on the south of Jerusalem, through the vale of Hinnom. Both tribes endeavoured without complete success to expel the old inhabitants, with whom they found it necessary to mingle (Josh. xv. 63. Judg. i. 21). Indeed, at a later period we find the Jebusites in sole possession of the city. When, after Saul's death, David had reigned for seven years and six months in Hebron, he conducted an army against Jerusalem, which he captured and called by his ow name, though at first he would appear to have made himself master of only the south.

ern part, the stronghold of Zion (2 Sam. v. 5-9). This event took place somewhere about 1500 A.C. Having strengthened himself in his newly-gained possession, he proceeded to bring into it the ark of the covenant, which was in the house of Abinadab, in Gibeah (2 Sam. iii. seq.); and when near the end of his life, built up an altar to Jehovah on the threshing-floor of Araunah the Jebusite (2 Samuel xxiv. 18, seq.). At the time of the introduction of the ark, David had the intention of building a splendid temple to enshrine the sanctuary, but disturbances and wars prevented its accomplishment (2 Sam. vii. seq.), which, however, was effected by Solomon, under whose peaceful reign the city was enlarged and adorned with this and other fine buildings (1 Kings v.-viii.? After his death, Jerusalem became the metropolis of the separate kingdom of Judah, whose fate it shared. The wars between Judah and Israel that ensued, rendered it necessary to strengthen rather than adorn the city. In the period from the division of the kingdom to the exile, Jerusalem had to sustain many hostile attacks. In the fifth year of Rehoboam (A. C. 970), it was plundered by Shishak, king of Egypt (1 Kings xiv. 26), and underwent a similar calamity under Amaziah (A. C. 826), at the hands of Jehoash, king of Israel (2 Kings xiv. 13, 14). At a later period, Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin, king of Damascus, combined in an expedition against Jerusalem, but failed in their hostile purposes, since Ahaz called the Assyrians to his aid (2 Kings xvi.). After the destruction of the kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians, their monarch, Sennacherib, fell on Jerusalem, but was defeated (2 Kings xix.). At last the city was sacked by Nebuchadnezzar, its temple burnt, its walls broken down, its king and chief people carried into captivity (2 Kings xxiv. XXV.).

The writings of the Old Testament supply few particulars respecting the topography of the ante-exilian Jerusalem. That the city of David' stood on Mount Zion, and the temple of Solomon on Moriah, needs no special proof. The original fortifications of the city were strengthened by David, Solomon, and later kings. The walls were furnished with towers and bulwarks (2 Chron. xxvi. 9, 15). The mention of an outer wall (2 Chronicles xxxii. 5; xxxiii. 14) shows there was an inner Of the gates in the old walls there are mentioned, the Fish Gate' (2 Chron. xxxiii 14), the Gate of Ephraim,' the Corner Gate' (2 Kings xiv. 13. Zechariah xiv. 10), Benjamin's Gate,' the First Gate' (XIV. 10. Jer. xxxvii. 13), 'the Valley Gate' (2 Chronicles xxvi. 9), the Horse Gate' (Jer. xxxi. 40), 'the East Gate' (xix. 2), 'the Middle Gate' (xxxix. 3). Among the edifices of ancient Jerusalem, we must distinguish the temple and the palace. A descrip

one.

tion of the temple may be found in 1 Kings vi. vii. 2 Chron. iii. iv. See TEMPLE. The palace, built by Solomon, was probably an enlargement of the king's house' of David (1 Kings vii. 2 Samuel v. 11; vii. 2). It stood opposite the temple, on the north-east corner of Zion, and was surrounded by walls and towers which enclosed several buildings, as the house of the forest of Lebanon,'' the porch of pillars,' or portico, and the house for Pharaoh's daughter,' or harem, mentioned in the Scriptures (1 Kings vii. 1-12. 2 Kings xi. 19).

When the exiles received permission from Cyrus to return, many proceeded to their native country in different caravans, under Zerubbabel (536 A.C.) and Ezra (478 A.C.), and endeavoured to rebuild their city and temple in the same spots, but on a contracted scale. The work was delayed and destroyed, till at last Nehemiah, the cupbearer of Artaxerxes Longimanus, was sent to Jerusalem by his master with full powers (445 A. C). The first care of Nehemiah was to fortify the city against hostile assaults. Traces of the old walls, gates, and streets remained sufficiently for its restorers to be able to give generally to the new city the circuit and form of that of former days. Information regarding its fortifications may be found in Neh. ii. 12-15; iii. xii. 31-40, from which it appears that Jerusalem then had twelve gates-the Sheep Gate, the Fish Gate, the Old Gate, the Dung Gate, the Brook Gate, the Water Gate, Ephraim Gate, the Horse Gate, the East Gate, Gate of the Valley, the Council Gate, the Prison Gate, probably the same as the preceding. Of the exact position of these in general nothing can be certainly determined. The Gate of the Fountain, or Brook Gate (Neh. iii. 15), must have been near Siloam. The Ephraim Gate may have been on the northern wall, since through it lay the way to the country of Ephraim, and the Valley Gate and Dung Gate are thought to have stood on the west or the southern part of Zion. The Horse Gate lay probably between the temple (2 Kings xi. 16. 2 Chron. xxiii. 15) and the king's house,' and the Water Gate on the western side of the area of the temple (Neh. viii. 3; comp. iii. 26). As the population that returned was much less than that which existed just before the captivity, large portions of the city must at first have beer. unoccupied. We find large open places expressly mentioned near the Water Gate (Neh. viii. 1) and Ephraim's Gate (viii. 16).

The history of Jerusalem from this period is so intimately connected with that of the Jews as to make any summary of it here a mere repetition. We therefore proceed at once to the description of the city as left us by Josephus (Jew. War., v. 4 and 5). This description relates to what the city was at the time of its destruction by Titus, but in

the main it may be considered the same as it was in the days of our Lord, and is therefore of importance. Generally, the account of Josephus, as being that of an eye-witness, is worthy of acceptance; but there are particulars in which it cannot be received, as it stands in contradiction with the Scriptures, and indeed with itself. As a result of the investigations of Robinson, Raumer, and others, we may give the following brief view. The whole space on which Jerusalem was built divided itself into three parts, separated from each other by valleys. I. Th Temple Hill, Moriah, on the east of the city. II. Immediately opposite the temple, on the west, was the hill Akra, with the lower city, to which a gate led from the western side of the temple.

This hill was divided from Moriah by a broad valley, which was in part filled up under the Asmonæan princes, when they caused the summit of Akra to be levelled. III. South from Akra and south-west from the temple, lay Zion, on which was built the old City of David.'

Northward of these three parts, the city extended itself under the designation of Newtown, Bezetha, which at first had no regular fortification. On the sides where the city was well defended by nature, that is, on the west, south, and north, the fortification was simply a wall which ran from the north-west end of Zion, along its western, southern, and eastern limits, passed the Tyropoon at the Dung Gate, and then enclosed Ophel on its western and eastern side, ending at the eastern porch of the temple. On the north and north-western side, the city was protected by a triple wall. The first or oldest began at the tower of Hippicus, and ran eastwards along the verge of Zion to the western side of the temple area, where it reached to the western colonnade of the sanctuary. In this wall were the towers Pnasäelus and Mariamne, and immediately thereon stood the palace of Herod and the Cystus, an open square in the extreme northeastern part of the upper city, where the people sometimes assembled, with the bridge conducting from the upper city to the tem ple. Of this bridge Robinson discovered remains. The tower of Hippicus is to be sought in the north-west corner of Zion. It was built by Herod the First, and so named in honour of a friend who had fallen in battle. Its height amounted to 80 cubits (each about 20 inches). It was quadrangular, each side 25 cubits long, and for 30 cubits was built in a very massive way. The stones of which it was built were very large-20 cubits long, ten broad, and five high, consisting, probably on the exterior only, of white marble. At the same spot of Zion now stands the citadel, whose north-western tower presents to the traveller that enters the city by the Jaffa Gate most decided tokens of antiquity. The upper part of the tower has a modern

appearance, and is not distinguished from the other towers and walls, but the lower part is built of large stones which appear to be very old, and to lie in their original places. Among the Franks it is known as the tower of David. In the lower part we probably have the remains of the tower of Hippicus. The two other towers, Phasäelus and Mariamne, were also built by Herod, and named, the first after a friend, the second after his favourite wife.

The direction of the second wall is a matter of importance, for on it depends the identity of the present with the ancient sepulchre of our Lord. The question has not yet ceased to excite a strong interest; but the work of the Rev. G. Williams, entitled 'The Holy City' (London, 1845), though answered by Robinson in the 'Bibliotheca Sacra,' has done something to settle the dispute in the affirmative. Unfortunately, Josephus has given but a very short description of the second wall. The following is a translation of his words:-' But the second wall has its beginning at the gate that they call Gennath, which is a part of the first wall. Curving (or bending) northwardly only, it extends to the tower Antonia' (Jew. War., v. 4, 2). This is defective and vague. Three things, however, are more or less definitely given. The second wall began at the gate Gennath, bent in a northerly direction, and ended at the Antonia. Its general course, therefore. must have been to the north-east.

Now, as

the church of the Holy Sepulchre lies in the north west of the city, the possibility of its being the same with Calvary becomes at once obvious. This possibility Williams has converted into a strong probability. In the same direction bear the investigations and convictions of Schulz, Prussian consul at Jerusalem, Lord Nugent, and the erudite Tischendorf. The publications of these very competent authorities have called forth a reply from Dr. Robinson, author of the Biblical Researches.' But the question seems to have been brought nearer to an issue by a work published since his answer, namely, Die Tpographie Jerusalems, Von W. Krafft, Bonn, 1846, which is the result of careful investi gations conducted on the spot, and in the use of all the scattered information found in ancient writers. The view taken by Krafft we shall subjoin, and thus, with the aid of three views of Jerusalem, afford the student the best means yet supplied for forming an accurate acquaintance with the topography of the Holy City. Before stating Krafft's opinion, we shall finish the sketch founded on the authority of Robinson and others.

The third wall began also at the Hippicus, and ran northwards to the tower Psephinus; then it went in an eastern and northeastern direction, by what is termed the tomb of Helena; then to the sepulchres of the Kings and the Fullers' monument, where it sud

denly bent southwards, and ended at last at the corner of the old wall in the vale of Cedron. This third wall was begun by the elder Agrippa under Claudius, that is, ten or twelve years after the crucifixion of the Saviour (cir. 42 A.D.), in order to protect the newly-built suburb; but, being discontinued from the fear of offending the Roman emperor, was not finished by the Jews till some time afterwards. According to Josephus, the old city had a circuit of 33 stadia, about 3 geographical miles; the present circumference is scarcely two miles and a half, for the city has been contracted both on the north and south. The most noted buildings of Jerusalem at this time were-I. The Temple, built by Herod (TEMPLE). II. The Tower of Antonia, the work of the same prince, who gave it this name in honour of Marc Antony. It was a restoration and enlargement of a tower, called Baris, erected by John Hyrcanus. It stood on the north side of the temple, was quadrangular, and had at each corner a tower 50 cubits high, that at the south-east end being 70 cubits in height, and commanding the temple. Within it had the space and appearance of a palace, comprising rooms and halls of various kinds, with galleries, baths, and barracks for soldiers. It was in immediate connection with the northern and western courts of the temple, into which a flight of steps conducted. It was separated from Bezetha by a deep artificial trench. III. The Palace of Herod, on the north-west of Zion, on the spot where the Asmonæan princes had a palace. That of Herod was built of marble, and encircled by a wall 30 cubits high. The towers Hippicus, Phasäelus, and Mariamne, formed a part of the northern wall of the splendid building, which contained great saloons, numerous apartments, intersecting halls, open squares, gardens, avenues of trees, canals, and ponds. This Herodian palace the Roman procurators made their residence, and it is here that, some think, we are to look for 'the common hall' (Matthew xxvii. 27), or 'hall of judgment' (John xviii. 28. Acts xxv. 23), and not in the lower city, where tradition places it. IV. Eastward from this place, on the Cystus, Agrippa the younger erected a very large palace, from whose eating apartments he could see what went on in the temple. In order to prevent this, the Jews put up a high wall on the western side of the sanctuary, which intercepted the view.

Jerusalem was a beautiful city when it fell before the conquering arms of Titus, who spared not to lay it waste, fulfilling, in the general sense of the words, the prophecy uttered by our Lord in the words found in Matt. xxiv. 2. According to Josephus, however, Titus directed that a part of the western wall and the towers Hippicus, Phasäelus, and Mariamne, should be allowed to remain. A Roman garrison had its quarters in the

holy city. Probably a few Jews and Christians found shelter amid its ruins. For half a century after its overthrow, Jerusalem disappears from the page of history, until the emperor Hadrian, who was in Palestine about the year 130 A. D., ordered it to be formed into a stronghold, in order to keep the insurrectionary Jews in subjection. A bloody war was the consequence. There ensued an imperial decree prohibiting Jews to approach the city. The restoration of the city, interrupted by the war, was resumed, and Hadrian named it Elia Capitolina, from his own fore-name and the name of Jupiter Capitolinus, to whom he had erected a temple on the site of the Jewish sanctuary. Jerusalem now became a heathen city. Even the Christians who lived there do not appear to have been of Jewish blood; and the very name Jerusalem passed out of use, nor was restored before the days of Constantine. Till then there is an interval in its history.

The

The Christian church in Jerusalem, warned by the language of their Master, for the most part left the city a short time before its downfal, and retired to Pella, which Williams thinks is to be found at Tabathat Fahkil, near Bysan, on the east of Jordan. James, its first bishop, having been put to death in Jerusalem, the infant church at Pella were without a shepherd. The disciples, however, are said to have soon returned to the ruined city, and to have elected Simeon as their head. Simeon was succeeded by Justus, of whom and of his immediate successors to the reign of Hadrian nothing but their names are known. presidency of each must have been of short duration, since in the short space of thirtyfive years thirteen persons are reported to have held the office of bishop. A mere record of names, however, cannot under the circumstances be accounted of much worth. When Hadrian visited Jerusalem, probably in the thirteenth year of his reign, he found there a few Christians and some Jews. On the conversion of Constantine, the former increased in number. To Jerusalem, as the cradle of their faith, Christians in different parts of the world naturally turned their eyes, so that from the third century pilgrimages thither began to be more and more frequent. Even the empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, undertook (A.D. 326) in advanced age a pilgrimage to Palestine, and caused handsome buildings to be erected at Bethlehem and Jerusalem. Constantine himself built a splendid oratory over the holy sepulchre. These historical facts were soon seized on by the legendary spirit, and the church historians, with Eusebius at their head, relate the miraculous discovery of the true cross by Helena, as well as the erection of many edifices, so that at last, in the fourteenth century, not fewer than thirty churches within the limits