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erecting mansions or palaces (Ps. cxliv. 12), as well as to carved articles of furniture (Prov. vii. 16). IV. Pitovagh, which is the word rendered 'engravings' just above, and appears to denote the figures themselves; while the word,' carved figures,' may denote the nature of the workmanship, equal to 'engravings of carved work.' In 2 Chron. ii. 7, where this last word is used, we find Solomon requesting Huram, king of Tyre, to send him a man cunning to work in gold, and in silver, and that can skill to grave gravings, with the cunning men that are with me in Judah and Jerusalem, whom my father David did provide;' who, from 1 Chron. xxii. 15, appear to have been found in abundance in Jerusalem, all manner of cunning men, for every manner of work.' The carved work which probably these artists profusely executed in the temple (1 Kings vi. 18, 29, 32, 35), after the manner in which our beautiful cathedrals and parish churches were barbarously mutilated, despoiled, and disfigured in the civil wars, was broken down and laid waste by some foreign enemy,' with axes and hammers' (Ps. lxxiv. 6). The same word is used, in Zech. iii. 9, of carvings or sculpture in stone. The execution of the seven symbolical eyes here spoken of must have required no mean skill. V. Pahsal means to cut away, and so to form an image. The word is specially applied to idols. Thus, in Exod. xx. 4, · Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image,' Pehsel, idol, that is, as may be seen by comparing Lev. xxvi. 1, -Ye shall make no idols, nor graven image, neither rear you up a standing image, neither shall ye set up any image of stone in your land to bow down to it; for I am Jehovah your God.' The rendering in Exod. xx. 4,

'graven image,' is too wide and lax. As the text stands, it forbids all graven images, and so sets Scripture in contradiction with itself; for Moses was expressly commanded to form the cherubim which were placed over the mercy-seat (Exod. xxv. 18; xxvi. 1).

From this particular examination, we learn that the ancient Hebrews had no fewer than five words by which they denoted graviug or sculpture. Doubtless these words had each something special in their original application. They may also have varied in point of age. But the facts show, that the art of sculpture was at different periods in no mean condition. These periods varied in artistic character. On leaving Egypt, the Hebrews possessed, at least, some of the skill with which they had there become familiar. This they partly lost in the troubled and warlike ages which ensued. When, however, David's success in arms, and encouragement of the arts of peace, had given scope and impulse to skilled industry and enterprise, and when Solomon's luxury had fostered its exercise, then native artists were found ready to execute works of high merit; in which, however, it was judged advisable to procure the aid of the superior talent and taste of the renowned, opulent, and commercial Tyre.

The astonishing remains of ancient Egypt, in the ruins of temples, and palaces, and tombs, give us peculiar opportunities for approaching in some degree to the artistic effects produced by the ancient Hebrews when in their happiest condition; for a very large portion of these remains were in existence long before even Joseph was carried down into that land of wonders.

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Carving in wood does not appear to have been so common in Egypt as sculpture on stone, as wood was by no means abundant in the country. Still it was practised. Boxes, chairs, tables, sofas, and other pieces of furniture, were frequently made of ebony, inlaid with ivory. Sycamore and acacia were veneered with thin layers, or ornamented with carved devices of rare wood, applied or let into them.

The preceding cut represents a small wooden pectoral plate, with the subject carved in outline, inlaid with blue paint. It exhibits a monarch standing in a chariot with two horses, which are adorned with the plumes and housing that they appear bearing in martial scenes. The celestial sun is over the monarch's head. In the centre is a line of hieroglyphics, expressing the lord of diadems, Amounopth. The carving was found at Thebes, and, relating to Amenoph I. may have for its date 1663, A.C.

been sculptured on the temple. We therefore subjoin one, exhibiting Selk or Heaven (feminine with the Egyptians), in the shape of a human being surrounded with stars, the body bending with down-spread arms, so as to overshadow and encompass the earth, in imitation of the vault of heaven reaching from one side of the horizon to the other In this posture, Selk encloses the Zodiacs, as at Esneh and Denderah. The uppermost part of the compartments sculptured on . Egyptian monuments is generally crowned with the emblem of this divinity.

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SELK, OR HEAVEN.

It was in mural sculpture that the Egyptians were chiefly rich; and of their productions of this nature, we have the most abundant remains. Marches, battles, sieges, and triumphs, form the ordinary subjects of the mural sculptures on the ancient edifices. Such scenes were at once exactly adapted for decorative sculpture, and flattered the vanity of the sovereign and the nation. Some of these grand pictures contain several hundred figures. Your eye is first attracted by the colossal hero: erect in his chariot, his arrow drawn to the head, Le drives furiously on against the foe; his horses, magnificently caparisoned, with high arched neck, atd pawing hoof, seem to smell the battle from afar. Compact lines of war-cars advance, and put the enemy to flight. Homer, no doubt, drew from similar originals; and the general action and story of these compositions cannot be better described than by one of his tempestuous battle-scenes:

"The gates, unfolding, pour forth all their train; Squadrons on squadrons cloud the dusky plain; Men, steeds, and chariots, shake the trembling ground;

The tumult thickens, and the skies resound.
And now with shouts the shocking armies closed,
To lances, lances, shields to shields opposed;
Host against host with shadowy legions drew,
The sounding darts in iron tempests flew;
Victors and vanquished join promiscuous cries,
Triumphant shouts and dying groans arise.'

These scenes were strictly historical: nothing was sacrificed to artistic embellishment. Different nations are distinguished by their respective habits costume, arms,

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and physiognomical characteristics. Forts are seen surrounded by their fosses, and these traversed by bridges. The ancient Egyptian camp is drawn with interesting minuteness. Guards stand on either side the entrance. Within are seen in confusion chariots, plaustra, sutlers, loose horses, oxen, and the spoil taken from the enemy. Campaigns are represented by successive pictures. The army leaves Egypt, meets and routs the enemy, captures their forts, and at length returns with triumphal pageantry to Thebes, when the monarch presents his offerings to the gods, and receives their congratulations.

Some of the most interesting of these scenes are at the Memnonium, and commemorate the exploits of Rameses II. or Sesostris. On one wing of the propylon, the taking of several towns is represented, with details of barbarity. On the east wall of the second court, there is a grand battle-scene: the enemy fly in disorder to a fortified city, surrounded by a river. Some are seen plunged in the water, contending with the stream; others, almost exhausted, are drawn out by their friends on the opposite bank. Another of these sanguinary scenes, within the hall of columns, represents the storming of a forta detached castle in two stories, on the summit of a conical rock, battlemented, and surmounted by a standard. The besiegers, under cover of their testudos or large canopying shields, have advanced to the foot of the fortress; others, raised on the top of the testudos, have planted a scaling-ladder against the wall, and gallantly forced their way up the steep, in face of the pikes of the enemy. The besiegers appear at the top behind the battlements, and make a determined defence. Some repel the foremost assailants with pike and spear; others others hurl stones on those beneath.

At the grand palace of Medinet Haboo, we have more of these battles and triumphs; records of the foreign conquests of Rameses III. the contemporary of the Israelitish hero Gideon. On the exterior, in a series of such subjects, a naval fight is represented. The combatants are in light boats with a single

sail. A figure is perched at the top of the short mast, perhaps to direct the movements of the men, or to pick off the officers of the enemy with the sling. The Egyptian galleys, known by the lion's head at the prow, advance in regular line; the bowmen discharge their arrows, and the enemy are thrown into confusion. Many are already taken prisoners and handcuffed. The king, standing on several prostrate captives (Josh. x. 24), shoots his arrows from the shore. Within the palace, on the walls of the Caryatic quadrangle, is represented a grand pa geanta triumph, or, as has been supposed, a coronation. The king, seated on a canopied chair of state, is borne along on the shoulders of twelve princes. A herald, reading from an open roll, marches before, and proclaims perhaps his exploits, or his claims to sovereignty. Priests, officers, and musicians, precede and follow; and some, at the side of the king, bear fans or flabella. In advance, the god Khem, erect on a table or platform, is borne in state by attendants. The king re-appears in another part of the picture, now wearing the double crown, or pshent; a long train of functionaries advance towards him with offerings and ensigns, and some carry statutes of his ancestors on their shoulders; four birds are liberated as though to carry important intelligence to the four quarters of the globe.

Another picture in this court represents what may have been an ordinary scene after a victory. The king is seated in his warcar; his plumed and richly caparisoned steeds are held by attendants. The prisoners are led up to him in files, their arms tied together at the elbow over their heads, and in other attitudes of torture. An officer then counts down in heaps before the king the hands of the slain; and another enters their numbers, amounting to some thousands, in a roll. The cut on the next page, taken from a sculptured façade of an Egyptian temple, exhibits a monarch slaying his enemies in battle, ard is emblematical of regal power in confiict with national foes. The original is a favourable specimen of Egyptian art.

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This engraving represents a stone, on mon, or a winged asp, and a goddess apwhich are cut the figures of Re, Agathode-parently with a frog's head; also, a Greek

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CASEMENT (from the Latin capsa, Engtish case), a window; windows being in old times a sort of case, such as what are called oriel windows. The Hebrew word of which casement is a rendering (Prov. vii. 6), signifies to knit or join together, and is best represented by the word lattice, which stands in the English Bible for it, in the only other place (Judg. v. 28) in which it is found; and where, from the usages of Hebrew poetry, it is obviously synonymous with window.' The word rendered 'window' in this place, denotes a bow-window, from a root signifying to bulge out,-to be round. Another word for window, Arobah (Gen. vii. 11; viii. 2. 2 Kings vii. 2. Eccl. xii. 3), seems also to imply a kiad of lattice, as it comes from a root which primarily means to weave. Windows,' in Isa. liv. 12, should be pinnacles or battlements. The window, Tzohar, which Noah was directed to make in the ark (Gen. vi. 16), was clearly such, being-from the meaning of the term, which, from a root signifying to shine, is generally rendered 'noon,' 'noonday'-intended, be yond a question, to give light

A word of much later date, Kaveen, found in Dan. vi. 10, may, from a root signifying to hollow or open, mean 'windows,' especially such as are like folding doors, which, when drawn back, give a view out into the open country. The last word rendered 'window' is Shekeph, whose root is found in our adopted word, skeptic, being a term common to the Indian and Shemitic languages. This word properly means to look, to look narrowly, and, according to Jewish tradition, denotes a small window, through which one might look without being seen. It is used of the windows that Solomon made in the temple, 'and for the house he made windows of narrow lights' (1 Kings vi. 4; comp. Ezek. xl. 16; xli. 16), probably because he preferred the 'dim religious light' which such would afford, to the blaze and glare which, in a Palestinian atmosphere, large windows would have caused.

These verbal investigations have shown that the Hebrews had several kinds of casements or windows, perhaps most of the kinds which have been known in more recent days; from the lattice or simple structure of crossed

laths, through the oriel window of the ornamental style of the middle ages, to the folding or garden windows of more modern luxury. That some of these were of glass, is highly probable. Glass was known to the Egyptians, and extensively used by them in early periods: the Hebrews could not have been ignorant of it, though its clear bright transparency would be against its service in giving light, both in Egypt and in Palestine.

CASLUCHIM (H.), -a people descended from Mizraim, or Egypt, who are supposed to have migrated hence, and settled on the coast of Syria, between Philistia and Egypt. Bertheau considers the Casluchim and Caphtorim as two clans of the same tribe or people. The Casluchim appear to have settled in Colchis before their migration into Syria. Herodotus (ii. 104) makes the Colchians to be of Egyptian origin.

CASSIA is the English rendering of two Hebrew words (Ktzeegoth, Ps. xlv. 8; and Kiddah, Exod. xxx. 24. Ezek. xxvii. 19); which represent two aromatic substances mentioned in Scripture, with other odoriferous herbs, and employed among the 'spices' for making the holy ointment;' also as scents for the person. These two

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kinds of cassia, and that which bears the name cinnamon, were very similar, and can now be with difficulty distinguished. general they grew in India, especially in the isle of Ceylon, consisted of the bark of the corresponding trees, and were conveyed to Palestine, up the Red Sea. Cinnamon' (Exod. xxx. 23. Prov. vii. 17. Cant. iv. 14), from a Hebrew word of the same form, may have been the generic term. The three words would then represent three different species of the same sweet smelling wood. Of these, the Kiddah appears to have been the least valuable, and bore the name kitto among the Greeks, whose writers distinguish three kinds of cassia or cinnamon. At present several sorts are known in commerce, the best being imported from Ceylon: an inferior kind comes from the Indian peninsula. Cassia bark is so much like that of cinnamon, as often, though inferior, to be sold for it. Our cuts represent two species of cinnamon, of which the general resemblance will be obvious to the reader.

The bark, which contains the fragrance, is peeled off when the plants are about six or seven years old, and exported in bundles of quill-shaped pieces.

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CASTAWAY (T.), a term which Paul uses in relation to himself, Lest I myself should become a castaway' (1 Cor. ix. 27). The word here rendered castaway,' is adokimos, which is made up of a, not, and dokimos, approved. In order that the reader may correctly understand the meaning of the term 'castaway,' he must be put into possession of the import, first of dokimos, and then of its opposite, adokimos. Dokimos is a term borrowed from the art of assaying or proving metals; of trying, by certain tests or standards, whether they are genuine, and whether they are of the proper weight. A piece of

LAURUS KINNAMOMUM.

coin that endured the applied test was termed dokimos; one that failed in the trial was termed adokimos. Hence the several accep tations of the words. Dokimos, therefore, signifies approved and accepted. In 1 Chron. xxix. 4, the Hebrew word translated into English by 'refined' ('refined silver'), is rendered by the Greek Septuagint, dokimos (see also Gen. xxiii. 16. 2 Chron. ix. 17). Paul uses the word of a faithful servant of Christ-approved of men' (Rom. xiv. 18); also in the sense of genuine, true (1 Cor. xi. 19. 2 Cor. x. 18; xiii. 7). He thus characterises Apelles as the approved in Christ;"

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