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the dispersion of Essex's army in September; but, on the whole, the Parliament had gained strength and confidence, and the fortune of their opponents was becoming highly dubious, if not quite desperate. In the very November in which the Areopagitica was published the 'New Model' of the army was proposed, for there were arising into note men resolved to prosecute the war with a dispatch and an energy not yet conceived. Clearly Milton was troubled by no misgivings as to the event of this military conflict. His mind had passed away from it into other fields, and he thought himself at leisure to open a spiritual campaign.

In strange contrast with the buoyancy and pride of the Areopagitica is the tone of certain later writings. The high expectations he had cherished were to be disappointed. It was to be his sad lot to discover that the overthrowers of tyranny might themselves prove tyrants.

'New foes arise

Threatening to bind our souls with secular chains.'

The Presbyterians were presently to display an intolerance not exceeded by the Episcopalians whom they had displaced :

'New presbyter is but old priest writ large.'

And it was to prove impossible to reconstruct a new political order which should be not dependent on the strength and wisdom of a great dictator, and so tottering to its fall the instant he was removed, but, in itself, strong, and stable, and enduring. The age was to be found unequal to the maintenance, or rather the attainment, of the ideal entertained by Milton's lofty spirit. 'Bondage with ease' was to be dearer than 'strenuous liberty.' One may easily believe that Milton expected too much; that he misinterpreted the signs of the times; that he too readily supposed others to be actuated by the same high-mindedness and pure enthusiasm that moved himself; but the discovery of his misapprehensions must have been none the less afflicting; and with a lesser nature would have ended in mere disgust and contempt for his race. As it was, though some bitter words escaped him, he did not argue

'Against Heaven's hand or will, nor bate a jot

Of heart or hope; but still' bore up and steered
'Right onward.'

He was not left comfortless.

Thou hast great allies;

Thy friends are exultations, agonies,

And love, and man's unconquerable mind."

And the difference just mentioned between his earlier and his later political writings appears not in any growing predominance of scorn and of satire, but in a certain enforced sobriety of expectation. He is prepared for the worst rather than sanguine of the best. If we remember what his dreams had been, and what were the realities he saw, there is a profound pathos in these following words of his, uttered just before the Restoration. When he wrote them, he, like his Samson, was not 'in the list of them that hope'; but, when he wrote the Areopagitica, he felt himself called to be a 'great deliverer,' Heaven's 'nursling and choice delight,' led on

To mightiest deeds

Above the nerve of mortal arm,

Against the Uncircumcised, our enemies.'

The passage now to be quoted forms the conclusion of 'The Ready and Easy Way to Establish a Free Commonwealth, and the excellence thereof, compared with the inconveniences and dangers of readmitting Kingship in this Nation,' published in 1660:

'I have no more to say at present; few words will save us, well considered; few and easy things now seasonably done. But if the people be so affected as to prostitute religion and liberty to the vain and groundless apprehension that nothing but kingship can restore trade, not remembering the frequent plagues and pestilences that then wasted this city, such as, through God's mercy, we never have felt since; and that trade flourishes nowhere more than in the free commonwealths of Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries, before their eyes at this day; yet if trade be grown so craving and importunate, through the profuse living of tradesmen, that nothing can support it but the luxurious expenses of a nation upon trifles or superfluities; so as if the people generally should betake themselves to frugality it might prove a dangerous matter, lest tradesmen should mutiny for want of trading; and that, therefore, we must forego and set to sale religion, liberty, honour, safety, all concernments divine or human, to keep up trading; if, lastly, after all this light among us the

same reason shall pass for current to put our necks again under kingship, as was made use of by the Jews to return back to Egypt, and to the worship of their idol queen, because they falsely imagined that they then lived in more plenty and prosperity; our condition is not sound but rotten, both in religion and all civil prudence; and will bring us soon the way we are marching to those calamities which attend always and unavoidably on luxury, all national judgments under foreign and domestic slavery, so far we shall be from mending our condition by monarchising our government whatever new conceit now possesses us. However, with all hazard, I have ventured what I thought my duty to speak in season, and to forewarn my country in time; wherein I doubt not but there be many wise in all places and degrees, but am sorry the effects of wisdom are so little seen among us. Many circumstances and particulars I could have added in those things whereof I have spoken, but a few main matters now put speedily in execution will suffice to recover us and set all right; and there will want at no time who are good at circumstances, but men who set their minds on main matters, and sufficiently urge them in these most difficult times, I find not many. What I have spoken is the language of that which is not called amiss "The Good old Cause"; if it seem strange to any, it will not seem more strange, I hope, than convincing to backsliders. Thus much I should perhaps have said, though I were sure I should have spoken only to trees and stones; and had none to cry to but with the prophet "O earth, earth, earth!" to tell the very soil itself what her perverse inhabitants are deaf to. Nay, though what I have spoke should happen (which thou suffer not, who did'st create mankind free! Nor thou next, who did'st redeem us from being servants of men,) to be the last words of our expiring liberty. But I trust I shall have spoken persuasion to abundance of sensible and ingenuous men ; to some, perhaps, whom God may raise from these stones to become children of reviving liberty; and may reclaim though they seem now choosing them a captain back for Egypt, to bethink themselves a little, and consider whither they are rushing; to. exhort this torrent also of the people not to be so impetuous, but to keep their due channel, and at length recovering and uniting their better resolutions, now that they see already how open and unbounded the insolence and rage is of our common enemies, to stay these ruinous proceedings, justly and timely fearing to what a precipice of destruction the deluge of this epidemic madness would hurry us, through the general defection of a misguided and abused muititude.' (Works, pp. 451-2.)

SECTION II. THE SUBJECT.

And yet Milton's own experience might well have made him mistrustful of his conceptions of the future. The attempt made to reimpose restrictions upon the freedom of expressed thought, against which he raises his voice in the Areopagitica with so noble a vehemence, so that it will still be heard to the very end of time, was only too significant of the temper and tendencies of the Presbyterian rule that then lay upon his country. From the meeting of the Long Parliament in November, 1640, to June, 1643, the Press had been practically free1. Even the custom of registering publications in the books of the Stationers' Company had been widely neglected. On June 14, 1643, the following Ordinance was ordered by the Lords and Commons assembled in Parliament :

'An Order of the Lords and Commons assembled in Parliament, for the Regulating of Printing, and for suppressing the great late abuses and frequent disorders in Printing many false, Scandalous, Seditious, Libellous, and unlicensed Pamphlets, to the great defamation of Religion and Government.

'Also, authorizing the Masters & Wardens of the Company of Stationers to make diligent search, seize and carry away all such Books as they shall finde Printed, or reprinted by any man having no lawfull interest in them, being entred into the Hall Book to any other man as his proper Copies.

'Die Mercurii. 14 June. 1643.-Ordered by the Lords and Commons assembled in Parliament that this Order shall be

forthwith printed and published.-J. Brown Cler. Parliamentorum: Hen. Elsing Cler. De Com2.

'Die Mercurii, 14 Junii. 1643.

'Whereas divers good Orders have bin lately made by both Houses of Parliament, for suppressing the great late abuses and frequent disorders in Printing many false, forged, scandalous, seditious, libellous, and unlicensed Papers, Pamphlets, and Books to the great defamation of Religion and government. Which orders (notwithstanding the diligence of the Company of Stationers, to put them in full execution) having taken little 1 See Masson's Life of John Milton and History of his Time, iii. 265 et seq.

2LONDON, Printed for I. Wright in the Old-baily, Iune 16, 1643.' See Arber's Areopagitica, pp. 25-8.

or no effect: By reason the bill in preparation, for redresse of the said disorders, hath hitherto bin retarded through the present distractions, and very many, as well Stationers and Printers, as others of sundry other professions not free of the Stationers Company, have taken upon them to set up sundry private Printing Presses in corners, and to print, vend, publish and disperse Books, pamphlets and papers, in such multitudes, that no industry could be sufficient to discover or bring to punishment, all the severall abounding delinquents: And by reason that divers of the Stationers Company and others being Delinquents (contrary to former orders and the constant custome used among the said Company) have taken liberty to Print, Vend and publish, the most profitable vendible Copies of Books, belonging to the Company and other Stationers, especially of such Agents as are imployed in putting the said Orders in Execution, and that by way of revenge for giveing information against them to the Houses for their Delinquences in Printing, to the great prejudice of the said Company of Stationers and Agents, and to their discouragement in this publik service.

'It is therefore Ordered by the Lords and Commons in Parliament, That no Order or Declaration of both, or either House of Parliament shall be printed by any, but by order of one or both the said Houses: Nor other Book, Pamphlet, paper, nor part of any such Book, Pamphlet, or paper, shall from henceforth be printed, bound, stitched or put to sale by any person or persons whatsoever, unlesse the same be first approved of and licensed under the hands of such person or persons as both, or either of the said Houses shall appoint for the licensing of the same, and entred in the Register Book of the Company of Stationers, according to Ancient custom, and the Printer thereof to put his name thereto. And that no person or persons shall hereafter print, or cause to be reprinted any Book, or Books or part of Book, or Books heretofore allowed of and granted to the said Company of Stationers for their relief and maintenance of their poore, without the licence or consent of the Master, Wardens, and Assistants of the said Company; Nor any Book or Books lawfully licenced and entred in the Register of the said Company for any particular member thereof, without the licence and consent of the owner or owners thereof. Nor yet import any such Book or Books, or part of Book or Books formerly Printed here, from beyond the Seas, upon paine of forfeiting the same to the Owner, or Owners of the Copies of the said Books, and such further punishment as shall be thought fit.

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