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§. 3. Complex ideas are voluntary combinations.—Though the mind be wholly passive, in respect of its simple ideas; yet I think we may say it is not so, in respect of its complex ideas; for those being combinations of simple ideas put together, and united under one general name, it is plain that the mind of man uses some kind of liberty in forming those complex ideas; how else comes it to pass, that one man's idea of gold, or justice, is different from another's? but because he has put in, or left out of his, some simple idea which the other has not. The question then is, which of these are real, and which barely imaginary combinations? What collections agree to the reality of things,

and what not? And to this, I say, that,

§. 4. Mixed modes, made of consistent ideas, are real.Secondly, Mixed modes and relations, having no other reality but what they have in the minds of men, there is nothing more required to this kind of ideas, to make them real, but that they be so framed, that there be a possibility of existing conformable to them. These ideas being themselves archetypes, cannot differ from their archetypes, and so cannot be chimerical, unless any one will jumble together in them inconsistent ideas. Indeed, as any of them have the names of a known language assigned to them, by which he that has them in his mind, would signify them to others, so bare possibility of existing is not enough; they must have a conformity to the ordinary signification of the name that is given them, that they may not be thought fantastical; as if a man would give the name of justice to that idea, which common use calls liberality. But this fantasticalness relates more to propriety of speech, than reality of ideas; for a man to be undisturbed in danger, sedately to consider what is fittest to be done, and to execute it steadily, is a mixed mode, or a complex idea of an action which may exist. But to be undisturbed in danger, without using one's reason or industry, is what is also possible to be; and so is as real an idea as the other. Though the first of these having the name courage given to it, may, in respect of that name, be a right or wrong idea; but the other, whilst it has not a common received name of any known language assigned to it, is not capable of any deformity, being made with no reference to any thing but itself.

§. 5. Ideas of substances are real, when they agree with the existence of things.-Thirdly, Our complex ideas of substances being made, all of them, in reference to things existing without us, and intended to be representations of substances, as they really are, are no farther real, than as they are such combinations. of simple ideas, as are really united, and co-exist in things without us. On the contrary those are fantastical, which are

made up of such collections of simple ideas as were really never united, never were found together in any substance; v. g. a rational creature, consisting of a horse's head, joined to a body of human shape, or such as the centaurs are described : or, a body yellow, very malleable, fusible, and fixed; but lighter than common water: or, an uniform unorganized body, consisting, as to sense, all of similar parts, with perception and voluntary motion joined to it. Whether such substances as these can possibly exist, or no, it is probable we do not know: but be that as it will, these ideas of substances being made conformable to no pattern existing, that we know, and consisting of such collections of ideas as no substance ever showed us united together, they ought to pass with us for barely imaginary; but much more are those complex ideas so, which contain in them any inconsistency or contradiction of their parts.

CHAPTER XXXI.

OF ADEQUATE AND INADEQUATE IDEAS.

§. 1. Adequate ideas are such as perfectly represent their archetypes. Of our real ideas, some are adequate, and some are inadequate. Those I call adequate, which perfectly represent those archetypes which the mind supposes them taken from : which it intends them to stand for, and to which it refers them. Inadequate ideas are such, which are but a partial or incomplete representation of those archetypes to which they are referred. Upon which account it is plain,

§. 2. Simple ideas all adequate.-First, That all our simple ideas are adequate; because, being nothing but the effects of certain powers in things, fitted and ordained by God, to produce such sensations in us, they cannot but be correspondent and adequate to those powers; and we are sure they agree to the reality of things. For if sugar produce in us the ideas which we call whiteness, and sweetness, we are sure there is a power in sugar to produce those ideas in our minds, or else they could not have been produced by it. And so each sensation answering the power that operates on any of our senses, the idea so produced, is a real idea (and not a fiction of the mind, which has no power to produce any simple idea); and cannot but be adequate, since it ought only to answer that power; and so all simple ideas are adequate. It is true, the things producing in us these simple ideas, are but few of them denominated by us, as if they were only the causes of them; but as if those ideas

were real beings in them. For though fire be called painful to the touch, whereby is signified the power of producing in us the idea of pain: yet it is denominated also light and heat; as if light and heat were really something in the fire, more than a power to excite these ideas in us; and, therefore, are called qualities in, or of, the fire. But these being nothing, in truth, but powers to excite such ideas in us, I must, in that sense, be understood when I speak of secondary qualities, as being in things; or of their ideas, as being the objects that excite them in us. Such ways of speaking, though accommodated to the vulgar notions, without which one cannot be well understood, yet truly signify nothing but those powers which are in things, to excite certain sensations or ideas in us. Since were there no fit organs to receive the impressions fire makes on the sight and touch; nor a mind joined to those organs to receive the ideas of light and heat, by those impressions from the fire or sun, there would yet be no more light or heat in the world, than there would be pain, if there were no sensible creature to feel it, though the sun should continue just as it is now, and Mount Etna flame higher than ever it did. Solidity and extension, and the termination of it, figure, with motion and rest, whereof we have the ideas, would be really in the world as they are, whether there were any sensible being to perceive them, or no; and, therefore, we have reason to look on those as the real modifications of matter, and such are the exciting causes of all our various sensations from bodies. But this being an enquiry not belonging to this place, I shall enter no farther into it, but proceed to show what complex ideas are adequate, and what not.

§. 3. Modes are all adequate.-Secondly, Our complex ideas of modes, being voluntary collections of simple ideas, which the mind puts together, without reference to any real archetypes, or standing patterns, existing any where, are, and cannot but be, adequate ideas; because they not being intended for copies of things really existing, but for archetypes made by the mind, to rank and denominate things by, cannot want any thing; they having, each of them, that combination of ideas, and thereby that perfection which the mind intended they should; so that the mind acquiesces in them, and can find nothing wanting. Thus, by having the idea of a figure, with three sides, meeting at three angles, I have a complete idea, wherein I require nothing else to make it perfect. That the mind is satisfied with the perfection of this, its idea, is plain in that it does not conceive that any understanding hath, or can have, a more complete or perfect idea of that thing it signifies by the word triangle, sup

posing it to exist, than itself has in that complex idea of three sides, and three angles; in which is contained all that is, or can be, essential to it, or necessary to complete it, wherever or however it exists. But in our ideas of substances, it is otherwise. For their desiring to copy things, as they really do exist, and to represent to ourselves that constitution, on which all their properties depend, we perceive our ideas attain not that perfection we intend we find they still want something we should be glad were in them; and so are all inadequate. But mixed modes, and relations, being archetypes without patterns, and so having nothing to represent but themselves, cannot but be adequate, every thing being so to itself. He that at first put together the idea of danger perceived, absence or disorder from fear, sedate consideration of what was justly to be done, and executing that without disturbance, or being deterred by the danger of it, had certainly in his mind that complex idea made up of that combination; and intending it to be nothing else but what it is, nor to have in it any other simple ideas but what it hath, it could not also but be an adequate idea; and laying this up in his memory, with the name courage annexed to it, to signify it to others, and denominate from thence any action he should observe to agree with it, had, thereby, a standard to measure and denominate actions by, as they agreed to it. This idea thus. made, and laid up for a pattern, must necessarily be adequate, being referred to nothing else but itself, nor made by any other original, but the good-liking and will of him that first made this combination.

§. 4. Modes in reference to settled names, may be inadequate. -Indeed, another coming after, and, in conversation, learning from him the word courage, may make an idea, to which he gives the name courage, different from what the first author applied it to, and has in his mind, when he uses it. And in this case, if he designs that his idea in thinking should be conformable to the other's idea, as the name he uses in speaking is conformable in sounds to his, from whom he learned it, his idea may be very wrong and inadequate; because, in this case, making the other man's idea, the pattern of his idea in thinking, as the other man's word, or sound, is the pattern of his in speaking, his idea is so far defective and inadequate, as it is distant from the archetype and pattern he refers it to, and intends to express and signify by the name he uses for it; which name he would have to be a sign of the other man's idea (to which, in its proper use, it is primarily annexed), and of his own, as agreeing to it; to which, if his own does not exactly correspond, it is faulty and inadequate.

§. 5. Therefore these complex ideas of modes, when they are referred by the mind, and intended to correspond to the ideas in the mind of some other intelligent being, expressed by the names we apply to them, they may be very deficient, wrong, and inadequate; because they agree not to that which the mind designs to be their archetype and pattern; in which respect only, any idea of modes can be wrong, imperfect, or inadequate. And on this account, our ideas of mixed modes are the most liable to be faulty of any other; but this refers more to proper speaking, than knowing right.

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§. 6. Ideas of substances, as referred to real essences, not adequate. Thirdly, What ideas we have of substances, I have above shown; now, those ideas have in the mind a double reference 1, Sometimes they are referred to a supposed real essence of each species of things. 2, Sometimes they are only designed to be pictures and representations in the mind of things that do exist by ideas of those qualities that are discoverable in them. In both which ways, these copies of those originals and archetypes, are imperfect and inadequate.

First, It is usual for men to make the names of substances stand for things, as supposed to have certain real essences, whereby they are of this or that species; and names standing for nothing but the ideas that are in men's minds, they must consequently refer their ideas to such real essences, as to their archetypes. That men (especially such as have been bred up in the learning taught in this part of the world) do suppose certain specific essences of substances, which each individual, in its several kinds, is made conformable to, and partakes of, is so far from needing proof, that it will be thought strange if any one should do otherwise. And thus they ordinarily apply the specific name they rank particular substances under, to things, as distinguished by such specific real essences. Who is there almost, who would not take it amiss, if it should be doubted, whether he called himself a man, with any other meaning than as having the real essence of a man? And yet if you demand, what those real essences are, it is plain men are ignorant, and khow them not. From whence it follows, that the ideas they have in their minds, being referred to real essences, as to archetypes which are unknown, must be so far from being adequate, that they cannot be supposed to be any representation of them at all. The complex ideas we have of substances, are, as it has been shown, certain collections of simple ideas that have been observed or supposed constantly to exist together. But such a complex idea cannot be the real essence of any substance; for . then the properties we discover in that body, would depend on

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