posed to other than southern English speech influences. The fact that I have lectured for some eighteen years, and have listened to many lectures, sermons, plays, and other forms of public speaking with much care, enables me to form an idea as to the modifications which are customary in standard speech when it is intended for other than merely conversational purposes.

It seems unnecessary to dwell on the justification of these variations in the speech of the individual according to the nature of his words and of his hearers. To speak in the home circle with the emphasis and intonation of the public speaker is not a whit less objectionable than to speak in public in a completely conversational manner.

The exercises will, I hope, be welcome to teachers, as they are intended to encourage an active interest on the part of the student. The object of this volume, as of its companion, is not to lay things down dogmatically and to supply an infallible guide, but to stimulate interest, to train the powers of observation, and to lead on to a serious and thorough study of a subject with the fascination and the educational value of which I am becoming more and more deeply impressed.

In the preparation of Specimens of English I have received valuable criticisms and suggestions from Mr H. W. Atkinson, Dr E. R. Edwards, Mr D. Jones, Mr B. MacDonald, Mr J. Oliphant, Miss V. Partington, Mr E. C. Quiggin, and Mr S. A. Richards, and I wish to express my sincere thanks to them and to all who may contribute to make the book more useful. WALTER RIPPMANN

EASTER, 1908

NOTE ON THE TRANSCRIPTION

THE mode of transcription adopted is that of the Association phonétique internationale in its simplest form as applied to English. It is hoped that for English students (for whom this book is primarily intended) it will prove adequate. As, however, the book may also be used by foreign students, it seems advisable to add the following notes on the representation of various sounds. The references are to sections in

the Sounds of Spoken English.

Stops.

[p, t, k] The aspiration (Sounds, § 22, 1; § 24, 1; § 25, 1) has not been indicated.

[b, d, g] Initially and finally these sounds are not fully voiced, unless they are in contact with voiced sounds in preceding or following words. Initially they start voiceless, finally they end voiceless.

[m, n, p] The fact that these sounds are often partly voiceless (Sounds, § 22, 3; § 24, 3; § 25, 3) has not been indicated. There is also no indication of the varying quantity. The length of the nasals in such words as lamb, man, ring, hand (i.e. final, or before final voiced sound) and the lengthening of the preceding vowel are often ignored by foreigners.

In cases where a nasal has syllabic value, no special sign has been used to show this; the nature of the surrounding sounds makes it obvious.

vii

Continuants.

[v, 3, z, ] The partial unvoicing of these sounds (Sounds, §§ 27, 30, 31) initially and (in a more noticeable fashion) finally before the voiceless initial of the next word or before a pause has not been indicated. Many foreigners here (as in the case of [b, d, g]) tend to make the sounds too sonorous, i.e. accompany the articulation with vibration of the vocal chords throughout.

[dz] Many foreigners make the [3] much too sonorous in this combination.

[, ] Foreigners often produce excessive friction by putting the tongue well between the teeth.

[A] No notice has been taken of the voiceless wh (Sounds, § 26). There is no evidence that it is regaining lost ground among speakers of standard English.

[r] The English r is generally untrilled (Sounds, §32); for this the phonetic symbol is strictly [1]. The fact that after voiceless sounds the r may become voiceless has not been indicated.

[1] If the l is pronounced with the tongue right against the teeth (as in some foreign languages) the effect is unpleasant to English ears, especially when the sound is final (Sounds, § 33). The fact that after voiceless sounds the I may become voiceless and that I often is syllabic has not been indicated.

Vowels.

[ai, au] Of the various forms in which these diphthongs (Sounds, § 40) appear, those indicated are the safest for foreigners; they should, however, bear

in mind that the second element is lax, by no means à close [i] or [u].

[2] This is the peculiar English sound (Sounds, § 43), with tongue drawn far back and no appreciable lip-rounding. It differs materially from the standard French and German [5]. The written o in unstressed positions has values ranging from [ɔ], or even [o], to [ə]; no attempt has been made to distinguish these, which vary according to the speaker and the context.

[ei] The first part of this diphthong (Sounds, § 41) is not so open as the first sound in air, nor so close as the vowel in French été, German Schnee. The e in pen is similarly a middle [e].

[ou] The first part of this diphthong (Sounds, § 44) is not so open as the first. sound in or, nor so close as the vowel in French rose, German Rose.

[i:, u:] These sounds (Sounds, §§ 42, 45) are not uniform long vowels.

[i] The short i in fin (strictly [1]) is laxly articulated (Sounds, § 42); it is not the close sound of i in French fine. The [i] in unstressed prefixes and suffixes, e.g. in before, inquire, and in very, houses, is a very lax sound, and should never be identified with the lax [1]. The two vowels in lily are not identical. The vowel in the before a word beginning with a vowel is a more or less tense [i].

[u] The short u is also laxly articulated (Sounds, § 45).

[ə, ə', ǝ] Three varieties of quantity (to which correspond slight varieties of quality) have been indicated in the case of the dull [e] sound. There

is also an unstressed vowel intermediate between [ə] and [], heard in deliberate speech, in such words as abstain, and. This has not been indicated in the transcription.

Variations in length conditioned by following consonants. Long vowels or diphthongs are shortened before voiceless consonants; consider the following pairs :

:

:

bard barter, wide: white, loud lout, fade: fate, broad brought, feed: feet, rude: root, mewed: mute; halve: half, wives: wife, (to) house: (a) house, baize : base, haws: horse, leave leaf, soothe sooth, (to) use : (a) use.

:

Short vowels are lengthened before voiced consonants; consider the following pairs :

back bag, let led, lock: log, rip: rib, foot: hood; as has, hiss his.

The shortened long vowel is still longer than the lengthened short vowel; consider the following series:

In such cases as near, nearest; poor, poorest the first vowel is open (strictly [II, U :]) and is followed by [e], which is distinct when the r is not pronounced, but very faint when the r is pronounced.