having thought to express, and being animated by a perceived object in expressing it, when furnished with the guiding principles in such expression, acts intelligently, easily, and with satisfaction to itself. Such exercise is, indeed, one of the most pleasing employments of mind. Style, itself, then becomes a matter of interest; for the desire is a natural one to see the thought so expressed as to accomplish the object in expressing it. A foundation is thus furnished for criticism; its principles and the application of them become intelligible, and therefore interesting even to the inexperienced writer. The ancients regarded invention as the soul of the art of rhetoric; and the success of their rhetorical training is to be attributed mainly to the fact that their attention was chiefly directed to this department of the art. The disestcem into which instruction in rhetoric has fallen in modern times, is, perhaps, justly due to the exclusion of invention from our rhetorical text-books.

Secondly, the endeavor has been made, with what success the public will decide, to reduce to a more exact system the principles of rhetoric, in the determination of the proper province of rhetoric, and of its departments, and, also, in the development of the principles involved in both divisions of the art. So far as was deemed compatible with the character of a practical treatise,—of an art as distinguished from a science, the grounds have been indicated for the development of the art at each successive stage. The divisions, thus, are exhibited as given necessarily on rational grounds. It is a great satisfaction to the mind of a learner to be able to see that the path over which he is conducted is not an arbitrary one, but is determined by the very nature of the subject. Nothing is lost, while much is gained, by a conformity to strict philosophical principles in the construction of text-books for the use even of immature minds.

The author flatters himself that the view presented of the province of Rhetoric, while it will appear in its own light to be philosophically correct, avoids the confusion and difficulties, not to say the contradictions, that have been experienced in other systems. The province of Rhetoric, as the art of oratory, is well defined and is philosophically distinguishable from Logic, Grammar, Aesthetics, Poetry, and Elocution. Including, as it must if it be a proper art, both the supply of thought and of language, it is saved from being degraded to a mere negative, critical system;-it becomes a positively invigorating and developing art, most admirably fitted to call forth and discipline the mental powers in a course of rationally prescribed and attractive exercises. Covering the entire field of pure discourse as address to another mind, it is redeemed from the shackles and embarrassments of that view which confines it to mere argumentative composition, or the art of producing Belief. This view of Rhetoric, in which Dr. Whately is followed by the writer of the article in the Encyclopædia Britannica, consistently carried out, excludes all Explanatory Discourse as well as all Persuasion. The allusion to the one, and the fuller consideration of the other, in Dr. Whately's Rhetoric, are justified by the author on grounds that are not tenable for a moment. Argumentative Discourse, the art of producing belief, can not, without violence to the well established import of language, include that discourse, the primary and controlling design of which is to inform or instruct, or that, the end of which is to persuade. Instruction and conviction are as widely distinguished as perception and Delief; and it must appear on a very slight investigation of the subject that "generally speaking the same rules will not "be serviceable for attaining each of these objects." Narration and argumentation have little in common, so far as

the conduct of the thought is concerned. There is very little, accordingly, in Dr. Whately's treatise, except under the head of Style, which has any application to Explanatory Discourse, as History or Description. And Persuasion, although it may make use of Argumentation, does not always require its help, and seeks entirely a different end by an entirely different process.

The distribution of the different forms of discussion, and of the different specific processes in each, will enable the learner not only to obtain a more thorough knowledge of the art of constructing discourse than he could from more general views, but will greatly facilitate the practical application of rhetorical principles to actual composition. In his exercises, he will know precisely what to do; while the supply of the matter of the composition, by being his own work, will give to the whole effort an interest and pleasure which are entirely foreign from exercises in composition as usually directed. It is the utter ignorance of what he is to do when set to the task of writing a composition, as it is called, which makes the task so repulsive. Suppose, for illustration, that "the French Revolution of 1848 " be given out as the theme of a composition. No intimation being given in regard to the object in the discussion of the theme, the mind of the pupil is left without an aim, and it cannot work. It will be the merest matter of chance whether he propose to himself any aim at all in the discussion, or whether he do not blindly and confusedly bring together manifold and incongruous aims, and his effort, pursued thus irrationally, give him only disgust from beginning to end. But let him understand that it is as necessary to settle definitely the object as the subject of his composition; to determine that he is to write a narrative of the events of that Revolution, or of its causes or its effects; or a description of its exciting

scenes; or argue its necessity or its righteousness or its expediency; or exhibit it as a political movement fitted to awaken emotions of admiration or of fear and horror; or as a motive to others to seek to gain their liberties or to guard against revolutionary outbreaks, one or another of these objects and but one, and he is at once prepared to proceed rationally in his work. He knows what matter he needs to collect and in what form.

He knows when to begin, how

The procedure is now all

He can see now at what

to proceed, and where to end. plain, simple, and satisfactory. points his effort is successful and at what it is deficient. He can receive criticism and profit by it.

A new analysis is given in the work of the properties of style, which, it is hoped, will aid the student in ascertaining what properties should be secured to expression in rhetoric and what faults should be avoided, as well as in understanding on what grounds they are classed, as properties of style. Both in the designation, and in the enumeration and description of the oral properties, there will be observed a departure from former systems which, it is hoped, will commend itself to every candid and thorough investigator. It will be seen that these properties can be classed together and be subdivided on the strictest philosophical principles, and that, consequently, they may and should be carefully distinguished specifically from one another and generically from the other classes of properties. The attempt has been made, also, to reduce to some "order and system the "Figures of speech" so called.

Thirdly, the treatise has been prepared with a reference to practical instruction in rhetoric; as an art, and not merely as a science. The principles have been presented with a view to their application in suitable exercises. It is accordingly recommended in the use of the work in instruction, that

exercises be prescribed to the pupil which shall involve the systematic application of the principles. A list of themes has been added in an appendix, designed for exercise on the principles of invention which apply to different kinds of literary composition. It will be found useful to prescribe themes of the different classes separately, and subject the composition when prepared to the test of the principles which apply to it. Thus, the exercises in narrative discourse may be continued till the laws of such discourse shall become practically familiar. The only exercises, perhaps, which the study of style readily admits, are those of correcting faults or of ascertaining the particular excellencies of a given discourse. Particularly, will it be found to be a profitable exercise to the learner to detect and correct, as far as it may be, the faults in the passages selected for exemplification of the principles. The form of the work, it will be observed, contemplates a thorough studying of its principles. It is not a work from which a mere cursory perusal will derive much benefit or satisfaction.

That

It is proper to add here that the original design of pre'paring the work, as well as the plan of it, have been suggested in the experience of the author as an instructor in rhetoric. The endeavor to teach the art under the guidance of our common treatises on rhetoric, with a predominant view to style or expression, proved so unsatisfactory as to put upon a diligent search after a better method. method was found in the study of the ancient rhetoricians and particularly in observation on the success of exercises in Homiletics which were mainly exercises in invention; at all events it was found, in actual experience, that the substitution of exercises in rhetorical invention,-exercises in which the theme, the object, and the guiding principles of the composition were prescribed,--in place of mere exercises