hearer; the narrower unity, in the singleness of the action itself.

According as the motive or the action to be prompted by t is adopted as affording the principle of development and arrangement, the discourse will be modified specifically in its form and be more or less strictly persuasive in its character. If the theme, which here embraces the motives presented, furnish the principle of development, the discourse will be more explanatory in its character. If the action proposed be made the germ of development, the discourse will be of a more strictly persuasive nature.

CHAPTER II.

OF THE THEME IN PERSUASION.

§ 218. The theme in persuasive discourse being ever a conception, § 123, must always appear under that form.

As the discourse will vary specifically in its form according as the motive or the action be made the germ of development, it becomes important that the speaker settle definitely in his own mind before hand which shall preside over the arrangement and development, and govern himself by the decision in the whole conduct of the discourse.

§ 219. The question, whether the proposition should be stated, is to be determined by the same general principles which govern in the other species of dis

course.

The general rule is that it should be stated unless

positive reasons be seen to exist against it. If the general subject of the discourse be supposed likely to give offense, the definite statement of both the subject and the action may be deferred to the end, or be gradually unfolded in the progress of the discourse, as the minds of the hearers may be prepared for it.

If the subject be not offensive but the action proposed be likely to be repugnant to the feelings of the hearers, the subject may be stated and the action upon it proposed be for a while concealed from view.

A variation from the usual method of proceeding in this case, may be justified sometimes, moreover, for the sake of variety, or on other similar grounds.

It is unnecessary to detail at any further length the diverse applications of these general principles according as the motive or the action itself is made the principle of development in the discourse.

CHAPTER III.

OF PERSUASIVE EXPLANATION, CONFIRMATION AND EXCITATION.

§ 220. In Persuasive discourse, the various processes of explanation may be requisite either to set forth the proper subject of the discourse or the action proposed to be effected by it, § 215.

§ 221. In the explanation of the subject, the application of the principles of explanation proper, must be modified so far as may be necessary in order to ex

hibit it merely as a ground or reason. or motive of action.

Hence the subject will not necessarily be surveyed in its whole extent. Only those aspects will be taken of it which bear directly on the action proposed; and of these, while at the same time false impressions in regard to the state of the case are to be guarded against, only such should be presented as are favorable to the speaker's object. Great art and practiced judgment are often requisite here.

Exemplifications of these methods of modifying the principles of explanation proper, are furnished in the orations of Demosthenes against Philip. The orator in them with great skill seizes hold of those particulars in the relations of the Athenians to the Macedonian power, and in the condition of Athens, which were fitted to inspire the Athenians with confidence in their own strength, and with contempt and resentment towards Philip, that he might thus incite them to a vigorous and efficient maintenance of hostilities. The explanations that are given, whether narrations of events or descriptions of places, of resources, &c., are all made from this one point of view; and are colored throughout by thi one persuasive character. Nothing is said that does no bear directly on this single end; nothing is omitted tha could promote it. The processes of explanation, it is how ever pertinent to observe here, are all very different fron what would be proper in a purely explanatory discourse very different, for example, from what are found in the histories of those times.

It should be remarked, in this connection, that it will fre quently be necessary to construct the explanation in persua sive discourse in reference both to the motives and the ac tion; as possibly the nature of the action may best be understood from a clear view of the motives.

§ 222. The explanation of the particular action urged in 'the discourse will conform more closely to the general principles of explanation. Since, generally it will be needful to give a clear idea of the nature of the action proposed.

§ 223. Confirmation enters into persuasive discourse whenever it is necessary to prove any allegation in reference to the theme, the practicability of the action proposed, or the connection between the motives and the action. Like explanation, in persuasive discourse, confirmation suffers important modifications.

It is not necessary to point out in particular detail the modifications which confirmation proper receives in persuasion. It is sufficient to remark generally that the whole work of confirmation here is regulated by a strict regard to the great object of the discourse, which is to move the will. Fine exemplifications of persuasive confirmation may be found in many of the political orations of Demosthenes; the speeches of Lord Chatham, Burke, Sheridan and Patrick Henry.

$224. Excitation is necessary in persuasive discourse so far as the excitement of the feelings is relied upon for influencing the will. Like explanation and confirmation, however, it is modified in important features in respect to the particular end of persuasion. Only such feelings are to be awakened, and those to such degrees only, as are fitted to lead to the action desired.

It is important to be borne in mind in persuasive excitation, that the same object may awaken two or more different kinds of feelings, some of which may be favorable to the

end proposed, and others adverse. Thus the increase of the Macedonian power, the multiplicity of its conquests and alliances, were fitted to excite the fear as well as the resentment of the Athenians. It was necessary, therefore, that the ora tor, whose design was to arouse the Athenians to a bold and vigorous prosecution of the war against Philip, should give only such a view of Philip's successes as would excite indig nation and not desponding alarm. The orator is careful accordingly, to attribute all these successes to fortune and to the supineness of the Athenians, artfully keeping back those causes of his prosperity which might awaken terror and thereby dispose the Athenians to an inglorious peace.

CHAPTER IV.

OF MOTIVES.

$ 225. By a motive is meant whatever occasions or induces free action in man.

In strictness, motives are conditions on which the free self-activity is called forth in some one or other of its various specific forms.

§ 226. Motives may be distributed into several classes in reference to the department of mind in which they respectively have their seat.

There are thus, First, Those seated in the intellect, mere conceptions or convictions;

Secondly, Those which are seated in the susceptibilities of the mind;

Thirdly, Those which arise from voluntary states.