and has no connexion of itself with the opposite extremities, where the body which is the object of vision is situated. Philosophers have hence been led to suspect that there existed some intermediate agent, serving to connect the impressions produced by the rays which bodies send to the eye, with the modifications of those bodies themselves. They imagine that touch, or the sense of feeling is in some way or other instrumental in instructing the eye and enabling us to correct the errors into which we should be led by this organ when left to itself. This has been explained after the following manner, by M. Condillac, in his "Traité des Sensations." Our first lessons are derived from the various motions which the hand makes that has its own image in the bottom of the eye. While in turns it approaches nearer to or withdraws farther from this organ, it teaches us to refer to a greater or less distance to one place than to another, the impression that is produced on the retina, from the knowledge we have of the position of the hand, and of the direction and extent of every movement which it makes. While one hand passes over the other, it conveys, in a manner, over its surface, the colour of which the impression is in the eye; it circumscribes this colour within its limits, and excites in the mind the representation of a body shaped in such a manner. Afterwards when we touch different objects the hand directs the eye over the several parts of each of them, and renders the arrangement and respective positions sensible to it. It acts incessantly with regard to the eye, by means of the rays of light, as if it held one extremity of a stick, of which the other end touched the bottom of the eye, and guided this stick in succession over every part of the object. It seems even to inform the eye that the point it touches is the extremity of the ray which strikes that organ; and thus while it runs over the surface of the object, it seems to pronounce its true form. When once the eyes are instructed, the experience they have acquired enables them to do without the help of touch, and the presence alone of objects occasions the return of the same sensatious when the rays proceeding from those objects make similar impressions on the organ. VOL. X. At the same time that the sense of feeling instructs the eye with regard to the images of objects, it exercises it also in the art of estimating their position in space, their size, and their distance; and when this distance exreeds that to which the motion of the hand extends, we supply the defect by another exercise, which consists in approaching towards the object till we touch it, and then receding from it again; and by the extent of these contrary movements we ascertain its distance with a degree of accuracy quite sufficient for all common purposes. When the object exceeds the compass of our ordinary movements, the proportions we are accustomed to remark serve as rules by which to apply to more remote objects the impressions that are made upon us; but as the distance increases, circumstances become less favourable to such appli cations, and beyond a certain limit objects present themselves more or less under a deceitful appearance, and we are led into that kind of errors called optical delusions. Having given this brief account of the manner, or supposed manner of vision, we shall proceed to observe, that we cannot contemplate the structure and uses of this organ without admiration of the power, the wisdom, and the goodness of the Creator, especially when we consider the prodigious exactness, and exquisite skill employed in every part, administering to this noble and necessary organ, To pass over the arteries and veins, and other parts that are common to the rest of the body, let us reflect on its several muscles, which are placed, so as to be adapted not only to every possible motion of the eye, but cach is endowed with such an exact degree of strength, as to cause the most perfect equilibration, by which all contortions of the eye are prevented, and it can with the utmost readiness apply itself to every object. Again, the tu nics or coats are so admirably seated, and of so firm a texture, as to fit every place, to answer every occasion, and to be proof against all common inconveniences and annoyances. In the humours also, we find all the requisite clearness and transparency, for an casy admission of the rays of light, well placed for refracting them, and formed, by the nicest laws of optics, to collect the wandering rays into a 162 Cheynell's “Rise, Growth and Danger of Socinianisme.” point. To this may be added the structure of the darkened cell, in which these curious humours lie, and into which the glories of the heavens and the earth are brought and exquisitely pictured, which cell is perfectly adapted, by means of its texture, aperture and colour to guard off from without, all useless and noxious rays, and within it is extremely well coated with a dark tegument, that it may not reflect, dissipate, or any way confuse or disturb the beneficial rays. According to Descartes, this blackness is intended to obscure the rays which are reflected from the bottom of the eye to its fore-part, and which would otherwise be thrown back again upon the bottom, and thus occasion a confused vision. Another reason has been assigned for this colour, viz. that the superfluous rays which proceed from lateral objects may be absorbed. Hence illuminated objects are best seen from a dark station, because the rays proceeding from them are not obliterated by circumambient light. It has been observed by the honourable Mr. Boyle and by others who have discoursed on the wisdom and goodness of the Almighty from the structure of the human frame, that as we are under the necessity of using optic glasses, so nature, meaning by the term, the God of nature, has made a far more complete provision in the eyes of animals, to shut out too much, and to admit sufficient light, by the dilatation and contraction of the pupil; and it may be farther noted that these pupils are in different animals of different forms according to their peculiar occasions. In some, particularly in man, it is round, that being the most proper figure for the position of our eyes, and the uses we make of them on all occasions. In some animals it is oblong, and large, as in the cow, sheep, borse, &c. which is an admirable provision for such creatures to see the better laterally, and thereby avoid those things that might offend them. In other animals the figure of the pupil is erect, and also capable of opening wide and shutting up close. The latter of which serves to exclude the brighter light of day, and the former to take in the more faint rays thinly scattered about in the night, which is an admirable provision for those animals, as the cat, squirrel, &c. that have occasion to watch and way-lay their prey both by day and night, and to look upwards and downwards in the act of climbing after their food or to avoid danger. With respect to the means adapted to the protection of this curious organ we may quote the words of Cicero De naturá Deorum. "The eyelids," says this philosopher, "which are the coverings of the eyes, are soft to the touch that they may not hurt the sight, and are fitted both for veiling and opening the pupils with the greatest celerity. They are defended by the eye-lashes, as by a palisade which prevents any thing from falling into them while the eyes are open; and closing together in sleep, the eye is at rest under their covering. They are likewise most admirably placed under shelter, and are guarded on all sides by more prominent parts. The upper eye-lids covered by the eyebrows are screened from the perspiration falling down from the forehead; the under eye-lids are defended by the cheek-bones which rise higher than their surface." It is remarkable also, that the hairs of the eye-lashes grow only to a certain length, and never stand in need of cutting like the hair on the head again, their points stand completely out of the way: those in the upper lid bend upwards, while those in the lower lid decline downwards. From these circumstances, we may learn how critically exact the great Author of Nature has been in even the least and most trivial conveniences belonging to every part of the animal frame. Did our plan_admit of figures we would farther shew the curious structure and lodgment of the muscle which is used in opening the eye-lids, and of another, or circucular one, used in closing them, and we would gladly point out the nice apparatus of glands that keep the eye moist, and serve for tears, and other circumstances which anatomists have noticed with wonder and delight. : Some Account of Cheynell's isme." ~ (Continued from p. 83.) Chapter 1. of this curious pamphlet is entitled, "Of the Rise of Socinianisme." Cheynell attributes this malignant heresy to "the spirit of an tichrist," which even in the apostles' time led "Cerinthius and Ebion to blaspheme Christ." The divine, who as one of the famous Assembly was empowered to determine the standard of orthodoxy for nations and ages, was so little versed in ecclesiastical history as to believe that the founder of the Ebionites was a teacher of the name of Ebion. Ostorodus, whom he quotes in the following sentence, might have set him right, if he had been capable of learning either truth or history, in what relates to "Socinianisme :". "Ostorodus would not have the name of Ebionites imposed upon the Socinians, quia vox Ebon Hebraicè egenum significat. Præf. lust. pag. 10, 11; it secmes they would not be counted mean-conditioned men: and there are some indeed, and those no beggers (unlesse it be at court) who are too much addicted to Socinian fancies: and yet if that be true which Ostorodus cites out of Eusebius, that the Ebionites were so called because they bad a mean and beggarly opinion of Christ, sure the Socinians might be well called Ebionites, for none have baser and cheaper thoughts of Christ, than they." After specifying and stigmatizing Arians, Photinians, Samosatenians, Eutychians, &c. down to" Sadducees, Papists, Anabaptists, Schwenckefeldians, Antinomians," with all of whom the Socinians are represented as agreeing in their worst heresies, Cheynell adds, "But I must not in my haste forget Abelairdus, or as Platina calls him, Baliardus, as Bernard, Abailardus, his name in our English tongue may be Balard; he flourished about the year 1140; he had a very ready discoursing wit, and is by some voiced to be the first founder of schoole-divinity; whether he maintained all those heresies which Bernard layes to his charge I shall not now stand to dispute, there is some cause of doubt; Abeilard lived to make his apology, and if it was but an honest recantation, he hath made some amends.”+ Cheynell next takes notice of Postellus, though he says, he " shall not doe him so much honour as to take *For an account of Abelard, see the extract, p. 136, &c. from Turner's History of England. notice of him ;" and "as for Servetus."' he adds, "I will not staine my paper with his blasphemies.” "It is much questioned," he allows," whether the Senate of Geneva did not deale too severely with him," but he quotes Beza to shew that considering his heresy, his admonitions by Calvin and others, and his obstinacy, he was put to death most justly. Such was the spirit of this member of the Assembly of divines who had a chief hand in settling the creed of our self-named orthodox brethren of the present day! The Senate of Geneva," he further says, "were in good hope by this exemplary punishment upon Servetus to crush this cockatrice's egg and kill the viper; but for all this some underhand and others more boldly and impudently did seduce the people." In the true temper of a persecutor, Cheynell expatiates with savage joy on the melancholy history of Valentinus Gentilis, who was burnt for heresy at Berne, in 1566 † he even abuses the Papists because they had before this event forgiven and released Gentilis, when he was in their power. He next pursues the two Socinuses through several pages. Having quoted a passage from the works of Faustus Socinus concerning his uncle Lælius, he says," I am at this great paines of transcribing, because Socinian books are so dear, every man will not pay a groat a sheete, the price that I am forced to, onely that I may declare the truth." Amongst " the tricks and devices" of Faustus Socinus, he reckons this, that he "pretended, just as our translator here" (alluding to Mr. Webberly) "to be a Reformer of the Reformers, nay, of the Reformation itselfe." He describes a book of Socinus's, which he confesses he never saw, as a pestilent one," in which he hath most cunningly vented his poison," viz, De S. Scripturæ Authori tate, which, Cheynell goes on to say, "Calovius tels us is one of his most subtile pieces, and seemes to be one of his first Essayes: Dominicus Lopez a Jesuit, was so taken or mistaken with it, as to print it in the yeare, 1588." Dominicus Lopez is not the only Trinitarian who has been taken, * See an account of this murder, M. Repos. iii. 309-312, in an article furnished by the late Rev. S. Palmer. 178 Review.-Evans's Ponderer. lover of literature, and a zealous friend of the best interests of mankind. No. I. is a "Biographical Sketch of the Spanish 'Poet Villegas," a cotemporary of Lope de Vega, whose Life by Lord Holland has introduced him to the knowledge of the English reader. At an early age, Villegas published translations and imitations of Anacreon and Horace, under the title of" Eroticas," or Amatory Poems. He attempted to rescue Spanish poetry from the fetters of rhyme by the introduction of the Latin metres; and has proved (says Mr. Evans) that the Spanish possesses greater affinity with the Latip, than any of the modern European languages. He also translated into Spanish verse the Consolations of Boethius, once a popular book throughout Europe, and wrote two volumes of Critical Dissertations in Latin, principally upon the ancient classics. He published besides a Commentary upon the Theodosian Code. He was born about 1596, and died in the 73rd year of his age. No. II. is "On the Sources of our purest Pleasures." The highest happiness is here placed in the possession of serenity of mind, springing from regulated wants and wishes. It is assumed as a principle that a preponderance of enjoyment is the only condition upon which existence is desirable. Among the sources of the purest pleasures of the mind are distinguished the acquisition of a devotional temper, the exercise of the benevolent affections, the retrospections of memory and the enjoyments derived from a cultivated imagination. No. III. is "Remarks on Dr. Gerard's Definition, and Dr. Johnson's description of Genius." Dr. Gerard defines genius thus: "Genius is the faculty of invention, by means of which a man is qualified for making new discoveries in science, or for produc. ing original works of art." Dr. Johuson describes it to be "a mind of great general powers accidentally determined to some particular direction." Mr. Evans pronounces Dr. Gerard's definition defective, and is disposed to rest satisfied with Dr. Johnson's description. Is not genius the power of originating new and arbitrary ideas, which as soon as they are perceived excite both surprise and pleasure? No. IV. is "On the Influence of Poverty in producing Capital Crimes." Mr. Evans thinks that man is naturally lazy, and that want or the dread of want, is absolutely necessary to supply a motive for action. He suggests therefore that it is better to prevent than to punish crimes, and he would, we suppose, recommend(though he has not said so) the prevention of crimes by furnishing labour for the poor. Popular education, which he does recommend, would doubtless lessen offences by enlarging the sphere and the means of employment. But is there not a dangerous concession in the following sentence?" It will require much sophistry to convince an impartial and thinking mind, that it is just to deprive a man of life for an action [which] it was morally impossible he could avoid committing." Moral impossibility is a plea for all crimes or none; and extends not merely to the deprivation of life, but to all punishment whatsoever. No. V. "On the Tendency of Literary Forgeries," is by a friend of the Author's. The question is imperfectly stated and unsatisfactorily discussed. In the VIth No. "On the Infelicities of Genius," some of the sources of misery to the few persons to whom this character may be applied are pointed out, and it is suggested by way of conclusion, "that the culti vation of the moral virtues, founded upon a rational piety, is a sovereign antidote, not only to the infelicities of genius but to all the evils of humanity." We find in No. VII. "On the Arts of giving pleasure," some sentiments with which we do not coincide. What is meant by "all happiness" being "at the best illusive?" In the concluding paragraph, flattery appears to be confounded with candour. There are some manly and liberal observations in No. VIII. "On the Law of Libel." No. IX. "On combining a Taste for the Beauties of Nature with ad. miration of the Productions of Art," concludes with "a tribute of praise," the justness of which we will not question, to "Anna Seward." We are particularly pleased with No. X. which treats of the "Natural Intimations of a Future State of Existence." The argument from the suffering of death, suggested by Dr. Hartley, is well stated: "All the other pains to which our na ture is subject are intended either to caution us against greater evils, or to remove them. Here are pains which can have no object upon any other supposition than that of a future state." No. XI. is a pertinent collection of "Biographical Facts illustrative of Dr. Johnson's description of Genius." There are some sensible and spirited observations" On the proper Objects of Literary Antiquarianism," No. XII. accompanied by honourable notice of the old English writers, William of Newbury and Richard of Cirencester. The subject of No. XIII. is local Recollections as to the early History of Bristol. In the "Remarks on Dr. Cogan's and Dr. Hartley's Classification of the Passions," No. XIV., there is greater clearness than in some of the other papers, and we subscribe to the opinion that "for acuteness of investigation, extent of research, philosophical accuracy of discrimination and elegance of language, Dr. Cogan's works are deservedly ranked among the first productions in this branch of philosophy." Nos. XV. and XVI., the former a "Biographical notice of Yearsley and Bryant," the latter a "Description of a Visit to Brockley Combe, in Somersetshire," are by correspondents; one of whom asserts for plants and brambles "the attributes of intelligence" and the other writes of the "gems" and characters "transcendently great" in the Bristol milk-woman's poems! No. XVII. contains "Strictures on a few of the principal Writers on Education," which are continued in No. XIX. The writers introduced are Hannah More, Edgeworth and Hamilton, and Knox and Priestley; whose merits are liberally allowed and judiciously discriminated. The Essay between these, No. XVIII." On the Influence of Mechanical Principles in the Formation of Character," by a correspondent, is philosophical only in the title. A friend has furnished in No. XX. an interesting "Biographical Memoir of W. J. Roberts," a youth of Bristol, who gave great promise of intellectual proficiency but was cut off in the 21st year of his age. There is a posthumous publication of this young man's, entitled "Poems and Letters." find amidst some sensible observations, calculated to promote enlightened patriotism, a recommendation of" The British Youth's Vade Vecum," published by Didier and Tebbett, and of Rose's "Constitutional Catechism," as elementary political books: Mr. Evans claims the last-named author as a "fellow-citizen." In No. XXI. "On the Importance of studying Politics as a Science," we No. XXII. is a lively and ingenious paper " On the Advantages resulting from the appointment of Death," The next paper, No. XXIII., “Fragments of Historical Recollections," is by a correspondent. Nos. XXIV. and XXV. contain the "Story and Opinions of George Donville." The Story is simple and barren of incident, but upon the whole pleasing; the opinious, which appear to be the author's own, are perspi cuously stated. The " Description of the Scenery of the Dargle near Dublin," No. XXVI., is by the author of No. XVI., an enthusiastic admirer of nature, who seems to have selected for description two spots as beautiful as can well be imagined. "On the claims of Chatterton to Fame," No. XXVII. the author speaks with the partiality of a townsman. We doubt whether it be safe to apologize for this unhappy youth by the maxim that "the very errors of ge nius are sacred." The dangerous maxim is repeated in the account of Mrs. Robinson (p. 198). In No. XXVIII. "On the Causes of Poverty and the best means of alleviating its Evils," the causes seem scarcely to be touched upon, but the means, namely, instructing the poor to rely upon themselves rather than upon the poor-laws and charities, are judicious, to whatever extent they may be practicable. No. XXIX. is an interesting "Biographical Sketch of John Henderson," chiefly extracted from a little volume of Poems, published anonymously in 1795. We gave [vii. 286–292] two Letters from this singular man to Dr. Priestley, with Anecdotes of him by an acquaintance. Henderson, we are informed by Mr. Evans, wrote the postscript to the Dissertation on Everlasting Punishment, in the third volume of Matthew's "Miscellaneous Companions." He was buried in the church-yard of St. George, Gloucestershire, about two miles from Bris |
