an orchid of Newfoundland and the North-Į The island of St Helena, lost in the imern States. The introduction of these mensity of the Atlantic Ocean, is of volcanic plants by ships cannot be entertained, be- origin. When first discovered, it was covcause they both belong to fresh water, and ered with forests, which descended down could not have been brought by currents the ravines to the very borders of the sea; or in the ballast of ships. now all is bare, destroyed, not by fire, but by the teeth of the wild goat. Introduced in 1513, they multiplied to such a degree, that seventy years after, Captain Cavendish saw them in flocks above a mile long. In 1709, a few forests still existed, and one of the trees which grew in them, the ebony, was cut down to feed the lime-kilns. The governor wrote to the directors of the East India Company for permission to destroy the goats and preserve the forests; to which they replied, that the goats were worth more than the ebony. A century after, in consequence of other remonstrances, the goats were banished, and the indigenous vegetation reappeared, when a new disaster arrived. General Beatson introduced a number of plants foreign to the island: the briers, brooms, willows, and poplars of England; heaths from the Cape; trees from Australia; and weeds from America. They all grew and multiplied prodigiously. Happily, Dr. Burchell had previously formed his herbarium, which is at Kew, and from which Dr. Hooker has constituted a primitive flora, consisting of forty species, which are found in no other part of the world. Among them is the singular wood which the colonists denominate gumwood-tree, and nearly allied to our European conyza.

If we turn to other archipelagoes, we find four groups on the coast of Africa. The traveller landing at Madeira is struck with the European character of the vegetation, resembling that of the south and the shores of the Mediterranean; but if we penetrate to Porto Santo and the rocks of Desertas, in the mountains and ravines, there are African, Asiatic, and American plants which Hooker classifies as the Atfantic species. The presence of these is extraordinary, and exactly as if we met with varieties in Jersey unknown on the coasts of France and England. It must be understood, however, that man has greatly changed the primitive flora of Madeira. When the Portuguese discovered it in 1419, the island was covered with forests; the new colonists set them on fire, and they burned for seven years. The vine and the sugar-cane flourished admirably on this soil covered with ashes, but how many plants must have perished during this long conflagration. At Porto Santo, a rabbit and its young were put on shore in 1418; and their descendants multiplied so rapidly, that the colonists themselves were afraid of death by starvation, as they browsed upon everything they could reach. The Canary Islands, which are much nearer to Africa, have a flora which has scarcely anything in common with that country. Out of a thousand species, many are not found in any other part of the world, and others belong to the Mediterranean. Passing on to the Azores, we find the common heath and the Dabcia polyfolia of Ireland and Western France and Spain. The Campanula Vidali only exists on the steep rocks of the Isle of Flores, the seed of which has been sent to England it has grown and multiplied, and is now in greater abundance here than in its native land. Nearer to America, the Azores ought to have more of its vegetation than Madeira and the Canaries; yet the contrary is the case, and many plants common to the latter are wholly unknown in the former. In the Cape de Verd Islands, which have been explored by Hooker and Lowe, the flora seems to be a prolongation of that of the African Sahara. In the mountains, there are a few species of the European type, but not a single one belonging to the three other archipelagoes, the dragon-tree only excepted.

Passing over the equator to another hemisphere, is the isle of Kerguelen, perpetually beaten by an angry sea, and surrounded by icebergs, sterile as one of the arctic regions. It is a black volcanic mass, surrounded by shoals, which led Captain Cook to call it the Island of Desolation. At a distance, it seems denuded of all vegetation; but on approaching, there are seen round tufts of an umbelliferous plant, and a few grasses, which border the shore in sheltered bays. Anderson, the natu ralist of Captain Cook's expedition, found only eighteen species; but still later, Hooker has increased them to a hundred and fifty. One of them, a gigantic crucifer, resembling a cabbage, was called by the English sailors the Kerguelen cabbage: for a hundred and thirty days this formed the only food of a crew of a hundred and twenty men, among whom the first symptoms of scurvy had appeared. Dr. Hooker, out of gratitude, called it after Sir John Pringle, who was known by his researches into this disease; but the Pringlea has no affinity with other species in the southern

hemisphere. Another plant, of the genus Lyellia, is also indigenous to Kerguelen, and recalls the type of Alpine plants in the chain of the Andes.

qualities of the men: they now dominate in the Canaries, Azores, and Madeira; they are invading many regions of America, and play the same part in New Zealand.

Next, we reach the large archipelago of the South Sea, including New Zealand. About a thousand phanerogames are to be found there. When analyzing them, the botanist cannot fail to be surprised again at this anomaly, that the greater number of kinds in New Zealand are not to be found in the nearest continent, that of Australia; and that the others also exist in South America, which is separated from it by a third part of the globe's circumference. In Australia, the forests are all but exclusively composed of the acacia and of seeds by migratory birds. So trifling a eucalyptus, so common in the gardens about Nice; but none of these trees are indigenous to the forests of New Zealand. Yet the climate is not unfavourable to their growth, as evidenced by their rapid increase in these cases where they have been introduced.

How, then, have these immigrations taken place, and do they testify to a former union of islands with the nearest continents? As far as England is concerned, this fact seems to be incontrovertible; but it must be doubtful as regards other islands, such as Madagascar, Galapagos, and the Falkland Islands, the flora of which is so different from the neighbouring continent. Naturalists who refuse to accept this explanation believe in the transport

The plants which belong to European classes are almost all aquatic, but nothing in the organization of the seeds can explain their transport from one hemisphere to the other. Those species which may be classed as American include one tree, the Edwardsia grandiflora, and many kinds of fuchsia and calceolaria, well known to the lovers of horticulture; yet they do not grow in Australia or any other part of the globe excepting the temperate zones of South America. These peculiarities are reproduced on the smaller islands: that which bears the name of Lord Howe contains five species of the palm-tree peculiar to itself, and apparently belonging to the genus Seaforthia. The other plants may be found in Norfolk Island, to which we owe the pine of that name, but the vegetable characteristics of Austrialia are wholly absent.

Many problems arise in the mind of the observer when these facts are considered. It must not be forgotten that our present flora is the result of transformations carried on during thousands of years, leaving behind them obscure and isolated traces. The plants which lived in the tertiary or quaternary periods — such as the laurel, the pomegranate, the fig-treerepresent a primitive population which has survived all revolution, and not succumbed in the unequal struggle of great invasions of vegetation from near or distant continents. It is the same with plants as with races the weaker and fewer in number fall before the more vigorous and fruitful. The plants of Europe seem to share the

cause might in a series of ages produce considerable results; and the vegetation of the Faroe Islands naturally explains itself in the millions of sea-birds which summer in the north of Europe, and pass the winter in the south. The currents of seawater must also not be overlooked: Linnæus was well aware that the Gulf-stream brought seeds from the Gulf of Mexico to the coasts of Scotland and Norway. A seed of the climbing mimosa has been picked up among the pebbles of the North Cape, while many others, after being in the water for a time, lose their powers of germination. In support of this theory, the reefs of coral have been adduced, which, rising out of the Pacific Ocean, are in time covered with palm-trees, herbaceous plants, and animals imported from neighbouring islands; but for many this is not conclusive, and they adhere to the opinion of the ancient union between Europe and America. Life is too short, and the organization of scientific proofs for a long period has not been tried, whilst analogy and induction permit us to say: "Nothing in nature is immutable."

the innate wisdom and the marvellous un- | is set out most explicitly in the article on taught dexterity of beasts, birds, and in- Instinct in "Chamber's Encyclopædia." sects, he is in little danger of being checked Thus: "It is likewise said that the chick by the men of science. His learned enemies are dumb, when in triumph he asks the old question:

recognizes grains of corn at first sight, and can so direct its movements as to pick them up at once; being thus able to know the meaning of what it sees, to measure the distance of objects instinctively, and to graduate its movements to that knowledge—all which is, in the present state of our acquaintance with the laws of mind, wholly incredible." And it is held, that all the supposed examples of instinct may be for anything that has yet been observed to the contrary nothing more than cases of rapid learning, imitation, or instruction.

Thus it would appear that with regard to instinct we have yet to ascertain the facts. With a view to this end, I have made many observations and experiments, mostly on chickens. The question of instinct, as opposed to acquisition, has been discussed chiefly in connection with the

"Who taught the nations of the field and wood To shun their poison and to choose their food? Prescient, the tides or tempests to withstand, Build on the wave, or arch beneath the sand?" The very little that our psychologists have done for instinct may be told in a few words. The only theory of instinct, of the nature of an explanation, is that put forward by Mr. Herbert Spencer as part of his philosophy of evolution; but, as a theory, it is only beginning to be understood and appreciated among scientific men; while some eminent thinkers question the reality of the phenomena to be explained. Professor Bain, our other psychologist, and his able following of trained disciples, simply discredit the alleged facts of instinct. Unfortunately, however, in-perceptions of distance and direction by stead of putting the matter to the test of the eye and the ear. Against the instinctobservation and experiment, they have ive character of these perceptions it is contented themselves with criticizing the argued, that as distance means movement, few accidental observations that have been locomotion, the very essence of the idea recorded, and with arguing against the is such as cannot be taken in by the eye probability of instinctive knowledge. In or ear; that what the varying sensations defending the Berkeleian Theory of Vision, and feelings of sight and hearing correProfessor Bain, in answer to the assertion spond to, must be got at by moving over that the young of the lower animals mani- the ground-by experience. On the fest an instinctive perception of distance other hand, it is alleged that, though as by the eye, contends that "there does not regards man the prolonged helplessness of exist a body of careful and adequate ob- infancy stands in the way of the observer, servations on the early movements of ani- we have only to look at the young of the mals." Writing long ago on the same lower animals to see that as a matter of subject, Mr. Mill also, while admitting that fact they do not require to go through the "the facts relating to the young of the process of learning the meaning of their lower animals have been long felt to be a sensations in relation to external things; real stumbling-block in the way of the that chickens, for example, run about, theory," maintains that "our knowledge pick up crumbs, and follow the call of of the mental operations of animals is too their mother immediately on leaving the imperfect to enable us to affirm positively shell. For putting this matter to the test that they have this instinct." Denying of experiment, chickens, therefore, are the facts, however, was not Mr. Mill's most suitable and convenient subjects. I mode of saving the theory. He was rather have observed and experimented on more of opinion that the "animals have to us an than fifty chickens, taking them from inexplicable facility both of finding and se- under the hen while yet in the eggs. But lecting the objects which their wants re- of these, not one on emerging from the quire." How very inexplicable, he con- shell was in a condition to manifest an acceives, their mental operations may possi-quaintance with the qualities of the outer bly be, may be gathered from the fact of world. On leaving the shell they are wet his suggesting an experiment to ascertain and helpless; they struggle with their whether a blind duckling might not find legs, wings, and necks, but are unable to the water as readily as one having sight. stand or hold up their heads. Soon, howThe position of psychologists of the too ever, they may be distinctly seen and felt purely analytical school, however, is not pressing against and endeavouring to keep that the facts of instinct are inexplicable, in contact with any warm object. They but that they are incredible. This view advance very rapidly. I have seen them

hold up their heads well, peck at objects, and direction by the eye are the result of and attempt to dress their wings when only experience, of associations formed in the between four and five hours old. But history of each individual life. Often at there is no difficulty in conceiving that, the end of two minutes they followed with with great spontaneity and a strong pow- their eyes the movements of crawling iner of association, much might be learned sects, turning their heads with all the prein four or five hours. Professor Bain is cision of an old fowl. In from two to fifof opinion, from observations of his own teen minutes they pecked at some speck on a newly dropped lamb, that "a power or insect, showing not merely an instinctthat the creature did not at all possess native perception of distance, but an original urally, got itself matured as an acquisition ability to judge, to measure distance, with in a few hours." Accordingly, in the ab- something like infallible accuracy. They sence of precautions, the time that must did not attempt to seize things beyond elapse before chickens have acquired their reach, as babies are said to grasp at enough control over their muscles to en- the moon; and they may be said to have able them to give evidence as to their in- invariably hit the objects at which they stinctive power of interpreting what they struck - they never missed by more than see and hear, would suffice to let in the a hair's breadth, and that too, when the contention that the eye and the ear may specks at which they aimed were no bighave had opportunities of being educated. ger and less visible, than the smallest dot To obviate this objection with respect to of an i. To seize between the points of the eye, I had recourse to the following the mandibles at the very instant of strikexpedient. Taking eggs just when the ing seemed a more difficult operation. I little prisoners had begun to break their have seen a chicken seize and swallow an way out, I removed a piece of the shell, insect at the first attempt; most frequentand before they had opened their eyes ly, however, they struck five or six times, drew over their heads little hoods, which, lifting once or twice before they succeeded being furnished with an elastic thread at in swallowing their first food. The unthe lower end, fitted close round their acquired power of following by sight was necks. The material of these hoods was very plainly exemplified in the case of a in some cases such as to keep the wearers chicken that, after being unhooded, sat in total darkness; in other instances it complaining_and motionless for six minwas semi-transparent. Some of them utes, when I placed my hand on it for a were close at the upper end, others had a few seconds. On removing my hand the small aperture bound with an elastic chicken immediately followed it by sight thread, which held tight round the base backward and forward and all round the of the bill. In this state of blindness table. To take, by way of example, the the blindness was very manifest-I al- observations in a single case a little in delowed them to remain from one to three tail:- A chicken that had been made the days. The conditions under which these subject of experiments on hearing, was unlittle victims of human curiosity were first hooded when nearly three days old. For permitted to see the light were then care- six minutes it sat chirping and looking fully prepared. Frequently the interest- about it; at the end of that time it foling little subject was unhooded on the cen- lowed with its head and eyes the movetre of a table covered with a large sheet ments of a fly twelve inches distant; at of white paper, on which a few small in- ten minutes it made a peck at its own sects, dead and alive, had been placed. toes, and the next instant it made a vigFrom that instant every movement, with orous dart at the fly, which had come the date thereof, as shown by the watch, within reach of its neck, and seized and was put on record. Never in the columns swallowed it at the first stroke; for seven of a Court Journal were the doings of the minutes more it sat calling and looking most royal personage noted with such about it, when a hive-bee coming sufficiently faithful accuracy. This experiment was near was seized at a dart and thrown some performed on twenty separate chickens distance, much disabled. For twenty minat different times, with the following re- utes it sat on the spot where its eyes had sults. Almost invariably they seemed a been unveiled without attempting to walk a little stunned by the light, remained mo- step. It was then placed on rough ground tionless for several minutes, and continued within sight and call of a hen with a for some time less active than before they brood of its own age. After standing were unhooded. Their behaviour, how-chirping for about a minute, it started off ever, was in every case conclusive against towards the hen, displaying as keen a perthe theory that the perceptions of distance ception of the qualities of the outer world

as it was ever likely to possess in after delicately adjusted movements that end in life. It never required to knock its head the capture of the insect. This I assert as against a stone to discover that there was the result of careful observation and ex"no road that way." It leaped over the periment; and it cannot be answered but smaller obstacles that lay in its path and by observation and experiment at least as ran round the larger, reaching the mother extensive. It is no doubt common for in as nearly a straight line as the nature scientific men to discredit new facts, for no of the ground would permit. This, let it other reason than that they do not fit with be remembered, was the first time it had theories that have been raised on too narever walked by sight.* row foundations; but when they do this they are only geologists or psychologists they are not philosophers.

Before passing to the perceptions of the ear, it may be mentioned that, instead of hooding chickens, which had the advantage of enabling me to make many interesting observations on them when in a state of blindness, I occasionally put a few eggs, when just chipped, into a flannel bag made for the purpose. In this bag the hatching was completed artificially, and the chick

It would be out of place here to attempt to indicate the full psychological bearing of these facts. But this much may be affirmed, that they put out of court all those who are prepared only to argue against the instinctive perception by the eye of the primary qualities of the exterual world. When stripped of all superfluous learning, the argument against this and every other alleged case of instinctive knowledge is simply that it is unscientific to assume an instinct when it is possible ens allowed to remain in the dark from that the knowledge in question may have been acquired in the ordinary way. But the experiments that have been recounted are evidence that prior to experience chickens behave as if they already possessed acquaintance with the established order of nature. A hungry chick that never tasted food is able, on seeing a fly or a spider for the first time, to bring into action muscles that were never so exercised before, and to perform a series of

one to three days. When placed in the light they deported themselves as regards sight in the manner already described. For the purpose of merely testing the perceptions of the eye or the ear this is by far the easier experiment. The hooding process requires considerable delicacy of manipulation, and the chickens are very liable to be injured.

With respect now to the space perceptions of the ear, which, in man at least, even Mr. Spencer regards as acquired by Since writing this article, I see it stated in Mr. each individual. Chickens hatched and Darwin's new book, "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals," that "the wonderful kept in the said bag for a day or two, power which a chicken possesses only a few hours when taken out and placed nine or ten after being hatched, of picking up small particles of feet from a box in which a hen with chicks food, seems to be started into action through the sense of hearing; for, with chickens hatched by ar- were concealed, after standing for a mintificial heat, a good observer found that making a ute or two, uniformly, set off straight for noise with a finger-nail against a board, in imitation of the hen-mother, first taught them to peck at their the box in answer to the call of the hen, meat.' My own observations give no countenance which they had never seen and never be whatever to this view:-(1) I have frequently ob- fore heard. This they did, struggling served chickens finally hatched in a flannel nest over a jar of hot water and left undisturbed for a few through the grass and over rough ground, hours, begin, immediately after the covering was re- when not yet able to stand steadily on moved, and while they still sat nestling together, to pick at each other's beaks and at specks of oatmeal their legs. Nine chickens were thus exwhen these were dropped on them, all noise being perimented upon, and each individual as far as posible avoided. (2) Each of the twenty chickens made subjects of the experiment described gave the same positive results, running to in the text, began to eat without any assistance from the box scores of times, and from every the sense of hearing; the greatest possible stillness possible position. To vary the experi being maintained and required during the experiment (3) Chickens picked up food though ren- ment I tried the effect of the mother's dered deaf while yet in the shell. One of these, de- voice on hooded chickens. These, when prived of both sight and hearing at its birth, was left to themselves, seldom made a forward unh oded when three days old, and nine minutes after it vigorously pursued a large blue fly a distance step, their movements were round and of two feet. pecking at it several times: this bird round, and backward; but when placed proved perfectly deaf. Another with its ears similarly closed, was taken from the dark when a day within five or six feet of the mother, they, and a half old, and when an experiment was being in answer to her call, became much more tried to ascertain whether it was perfectly deaf

which it turned out to be-it began to pick up and swallow small crumbs. What in this case really surprised me was that, the gum employed in closing its ears having also sealed up one of its eyes, it nev ertheless picked up crumbs by sight of its one eye almost if not altogether as well as if it had had two.

lively, began to make little forward journeys, and soon followed her by sound alone, though, of course, blindly, keeping their heads close to the ground and knocking against everything that lay in their